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WASHINGTON — The last time a president used an obscure law to spend billions of Medicare dollars without can i get ventolin over the counter uk congressional approval, Republican lawmakers called it a political ploy, a technicality, a way to write a “blank check” to help win an election. They launched investigations and issued subpoenas.But that was when President Obama was in charge. Now, it’s President Trump who’s using the same little-known Medicare law for a maneuver that even some can i get ventolin over the counter uk Republicans admit is more brazen than Obama’s attempt.

And so far, Republicans are silent.Trump’s plan is to ship seniors $200 prescription drug coupons in the coming weeks, a massive, $6.6 billion initiative that he announced less than six weeks before Election Day. He is relying on the same authority that Obama used in 2010 to bolster a more expensive, can i get ventolin over the counter uk albeit less outwardly political, plan to direct bonus payments to high-performing insurance companies ahead of his own reelection campaign. Republicans were outraged, and ultimately, a government watchdog recommended the Obama administration kill the program.

It did can i get ventolin over the counter uk not.advertisement Republican lawmakers’ silence on the administration’s use of the same authority highlights a fundamental hypocrisy in how GOP politicians treat Trump. Condemnation came swiftly from Republicans outside Congress and the administration and from congressional Democrats, too, all of whom viewed the action as a clear attempt to use taxpayer cash for political gain.“It’s completely inappropriate. The timing of it reeks of a bribe to seniors before the election,” can i get ventolin over the counter uk said Doug Holtz-Eakin, the president of the conservative American Action Forum and a former adviser to the late Sen.

John McCain’s presidential campaign, said of Trump’s plan. €œI see can i get ventolin over the counter uk no reason to somehow pretend this is OK. It’s not OK.”advertisement Eliot Fishman, an Obama-era Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services official who now works at the progressive health care group Families USA, agreed.

Republicans not calling out Trump’s latest move would be “worse than conventional partisan hypocrisy,” he argued, because of can i get ventolin over the counter uk the move’s long-term constitutional implications.“You’re essentially turning the Medicare program and any other program where there’s executive branch demonstration authority into an open slush fund that can be used to mail checks to key constituencies right before an election,” he said.Democratic lawmakers, too, quickly cast Trump’s maneuvering as politically motivated. Sen. Ron Wyden (D-Ore.), the top Democrat on the Senate Finance Committee, referred to the move as a “taxpayer-funded bribe.” House Speaker Nancy Pelosi called it a “desperately transparent political gimmick.” Even Trump, in announcing the giveaway during a Thursday address on health reform, acknowledged the move was political, telling a can i get ventolin over the counter uk crowd in North Carolina.

€œJoe Biden won’t be doing this.”The Trump administration has struggled to explain the policy. During a Friday morning call with reporters, Department of Health and Human can i get ventolin over the counter uk Services officials said the plan was still being worked out, and that the White House would soon announce how the $200 coupons were being funded. The White House, however, had already explained.

The program will rely on savings that the administration expects to generate from Trump’s separate “most favored nations” drug pricing proposal, which has not been implemented — effectively meaning that the money used to fund the coupons does not yet exist.Numerous Republican lawmakers did not immediately respond to STAT’s repeated requests for comment, can i get ventolin over the counter uk including the Finance Committee chairman, Sen. Chuck Grassley (Iowa), and Reps. Kevin Brady (Texas) and Greg Walden (Ore.), respectively the top Republicans on the Ways and Means can i get ventolin over the counter uk and Energy and Commerce committees.

Both the Obama and Trump controversies surround so-called demonstration authority, a power granted to the White House to test whether changes to Medicare to make the program run smoother or save money.Obama used that authority to change the bonuses for high-performing insurers that contract with Medicare. The plan, which was meant to test whether “stronger financial incentives and investments” would lead plans to offer better quality insurance coverage, would have doled out lucrative bonuses to 90% of private insurers.Republicans saw it can i get ventolin over the counter uk as an attempt to insulate seniors from spiking insurance premiums before an election. They argued that the Obama administration was robbing money from a different health program to prop up the Affordable Care Act and doling out the bonuses to make sure seniors didn’t feel the brunt of the cuts before the election.“An honest way to come to the Congress is.

Look, we screwed can i get ventolin over the counter uk up, we would destroy Medicare Advantage if we didn’t bail it out, so we came up with a scheme to bail it out, that’s what you did,” said Rep. Darrell Issa (R-Calif.), who led the Republican investigation into the project. The Obama administration pilot prompted Republicans to order a review by the Government Accountability Office, a federal watchdog program.Both the GAO can i get ventolin over the counter uk and lawmakers noted that the absence of a control group made it difficult to conduct an experiment to measure the program’s effectiveness.

The GAO ultimately found that the Obama administration likely exceeded its authority and recommended the demonstration be canceled.“There was clearly oversight following that demonstration,” said Jon Blum, the former Obama administration official hauled before Congress after the Obama demonstration. Blum added that he believed many of the criticisms waged at the Obama demonstration, like the lack of can i get ventolin over the counter uk a control group, likely could plague the Trump ploy, too. Trump’s plan is more brazen.

It’s not clear how the Trump administration might test whether the can i get ventolin over the counter uk payments had their intended goal if all seniors in Medicare are getting payments — or what the administration is planning to test at all.“It doesn’t pass the simple test of logic,” Holtz-Eakin said. €œI don’t see how you can send $200 to every senior and call it a demo. Doing it to everyone in the program is not a demo.”Families USA’s Fishman called the move a “completely unprecedented” abuse of Medicare waiver authority.Many of the Republicans lawmakers who used the GAO report to pounce on the Obama administration have since retired, like Issa and former can i get ventolin over the counter uk Sen.

Orrin Hatch of Utah, the chair of the Senate Finance Committee at the time..

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Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, Children´s Hospital at Westmead,Westmead, NSW, AustraliaPublication date:01 May 2021More about this publication?. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) is for clinical research and epidemiological studies on lung health, including articles on TB, TB-HIV and respiratory diseases such as asthma treatment, asthma, COPD, child lung health and the hazards of tobacco and air pollution.

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The IJTLD is dedicated to can i get ventolin over the counter uk understanding lung disease and to the dissemination of knowledge leading to better lung health. To allow us to share scientific research as rapidly as possible, the IJTLD is fast-tracking the publication of certain articles as preprints prior to their publication. Read fast-track articles.Editorial BoardInformation for AuthorsSubscribe to this TitleInternational Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung DiseasePublic Health ActionIngenta Connect is not responsible for the content or availability of external websitesDownload Article.

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Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands 2. Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, can i get ventolin over the counter uk University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia 3. Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, Children´s Hospital at Westmead,Westmead, NSW, AustraliaPublication date:01 May 2021More about this publication?.

The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) is for clinical research and epidemiological studies on lung health, including articles on TB, TB-HIV and respiratory diseases such as asthma treatment, asthma, COPD, child lung health and the hazards of tobacco and air pollution. Individuals and institutes can subscribe to the IJTLD online or in print – simply can i get ventolin over the counter uk email us at [email protected] for details. The IJTLD is dedicated to understanding lung disease and to the dissemination of knowledge leading to better lung health.

To allow us to share scientific research as rapidly as possible, the IJTLD is fast-tracking the publication of certain articles as preprints prior to their publication. Read fast-track articles.Editorial BoardInformation for AuthorsSubscribe to this TitleInternational Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung DiseasePublic Health ActionIngenta Connect is not responsible for the content or availability of external websites.

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For millions of Americans who don’t have access to asthma ventolin side effects employer-sponsored or government-run health insurance, the American Rescue Plan (ARP) does a lot to make health coverage more affordable this year. Premium subsidies are larger, and more people will qualify for premium-free plans, including anyone receiving unemployment compensation at any point in 2021.If you’re currently uninsured or enrolled in something like a short-term plan or health care sharing ministry plan and you’ve become eligible for premium subsidies as a result of the ARP, it’s likely an obvious choice to enroll in a plan through the marketplace in your state as soon as possible. And there’s a asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window that continues through August 15 in most states, making it easy to enroll in a new plan and take advantage of the new subsidies.But if you’re already enrolled in an ACA-compliant plan, or even a grandmothered or grandfathered major medical plan, you’ll have asthma ventolin side effects to decide whether you want to make a plan change during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window. And depending on the circumstances, it might not be an easy decision.Are out-of-pocket costs you’ve paid making you think twice?.

Unlike plan changes made during open enrollment, plan changes made during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window will take effect mid-year. And for people who have already paid some or all of their deductible and out-of-pocket costs this year, that adds an extra layer of complication to the switch-or-not decision.Use our updated subsidy calculator to estimate how much you can save on your 2021 health insurance premiums.Normally, the general rule of thumb is that if you switch to a new plan mid-year, you’re going to be starting over at $0 on the asthma ventolin side effects new plan’s deductible and out-of-pocket expenses. (These are called accumulators, since it’s a running total of the expenses you’ve accumulated toward your out-of-pocket maximum). For someone whose accumulators have already asthma ventolin side effects amounted to a sizable sum of money this year, having to start over at $0 in the middle of the year could be a deal-breaker.Are ARP’s higher subsidies worth it?.

But 2021 is not a normal year. The ARP has made significant changes to subsidy amounts and eligibility, and a lot of people will find that switching plans enables them to best take advantage of the enhanced subsidies. For example:A person who previously enrolled off-exchange in order to take advantage of the “Silver switch” approach to cost-sharing reduction funding, and who is now eligible for a premium subsidy in the exchange.A person who enrolled in a Bronze plan during open enrollment but is now eligible for a asthma ventolin side effects $0 premium or low-premium Silver or Gold plan (depending on location) due to income or unemployment compensation.A person who was eligible for cost-sharing reductions but selected a Bronze or Gold plan during open enrollment because the Silver plans were too expensive, but who can now afford the Silver plan due to the extra subsidies (cost-sharing reductions are only available on Silver plans)If you switch plans, will you have to start over at zero?. The good news is that many states, state-run marketplaces, and insurers have taken action to ensure that accumulators will transfer to a new plan.

(In virtually all cases, this does have to be a new plan with the same insurer — if you switch to a different insurance company, you’ll almost certainly have to start over at $0 on your accumulators.)HealthCare.gov is the exchange/marketplace that’s used in 36 states. Its official position is that “any consumer who selects a new plan may have their accumulators, such as deductibles, reset to zero.” But insurance commissioners in some of those states have stepped in to require insurers to transfer accumulators, and in other states, all asthma ventolin side effects of the insurers have voluntarily agreed to do so. Washington, DC, and 14 states have state-run marketplaces, and several of them have announced that insurers will transfer accumulators.Which states are helping with accumulators?. We’ve combed through communications from state-run marketplaces and state insurance commissioners to see which asthma ventolin side effects ones have issued guidance on this.

But regardless of where you live, your best bet is to reach out to your insurance company before you make a plan change. Find out exactly how they’re handling accumulators during this enrollment window, and if they are transferring accumulators to new plans, make sure that you adhere to whatever requirements they may have in place.That said, here’s what we found in terms of how states and state-run marketplaces are addressing accumulators and mid-year plan changes in 2021.States where all accumulators will transfer as long as your old and new plans are offered by the same insurance companyColoradoDistrict of Columbia – The marketplace has confirmed that all accumulators will transfer.Idaho – Idaho only allowed people to switch to a plan offered by their current insurer, unless they had a qualifying event. Note that Idaho’s asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window ended April 30, which is much earlier than the rest of the country.Maryland – Plan changes are limited to upgrades, but the marketplace confirmed that accumulators asthma ventolin side effects will transfer.Michigan – Deductibles will transfer, although some insurers will only allow this if you’re upgrading your plan. (Two insurers are allowing deductible transfers even if you’re switching from a different insurer’s plan.)Minnesota – Minnesota is currently not allowing marketplace enrollees to switch plans during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window, although this may change within the next several weeks.

So for now, the accumulator transfers only apply to people switching from an off-exchange asthma ventolin side effects plan to an on-exchange plan. All four of the insurers that offer both on-exchange and off-exchange plans have agreed to transfer accumulators to the on-exchange plans.New MexicoNew YorkTennesseeVermont – Like Minnesota, Vermont is currently only allowing people to switch from off-exchange (full-cost individual direct enrollment) to on-exchange plans. Accumulators will transfer for those plan changes.West Virginia — The WV Office of the Insurance Commissioner confirmed that both insurers are transferring accumulators, with the exception of a transfer between an HSA-qualified plan and a non-HSA-qualified plan (mainly due to IRS regulations for how HSA-qualified plans must handle out-of-pocket costs).Wisconsin – Covering Wisconsin, a nonprofit enrollment assistance organization, notes that accumulators will not transfer if people select a plan from a different insurer, which is to be expected.In some states, rules are slightly more complicatedAlaska – Deductibles will reset to $0 if a policyholder is switching from off-exchange to on-exchange (or vice-versa), but will not reset if the move is from one exchange plan to another, with the same insurer.California – The marketplace has confirmed that insurers will transfer accumulators for plan holders switching from an off-exchange plan to an on-exchange plan or from one exchange plan to another, as long as they stay with the same insurance company and the same type of managed care plan (ie, HMO to HMO, or PPO to PPO).New Jersey – Deductibles will transfer, possibly even to a new insurer (which is fairly unique. We aren’t aware of this elsewhere, other than the two asthma ventolin side effects Michigan insurers that are offering it).

But additional out-of-pocket spending will not transfer to the new plan.States where the official word is that ‘it depends’Several states have addressed accumulator transfers so that consumers know to be aware of them, but are leaving the decision up to the insurers. In these states (listed below), some or all of the insurers may be offering accumulator transfers, but consumers should definitely ask their insurer how this will work before making the decision to switch plans.ConnecticutMassachusettsNevadaNew HampshireOhioMontanaNorth Dakota — the ND Insurance Department is recommending that consumers reach out to their insurance company to see how this is being handled.PennsylvaniaRhode Island – There are two insurers that offer plans in Rhode Island’s marketplace. One has agreed to transfer accumulators and one has not, but the marketplace is still working to address this and it’s possible both insurers could end up allowing accumulators to transfer.WashingtonStates where the official word is that accumulators will asthma ventolin side effects not transferSome states have fairly clearly indicated that insurers will not transfer accumulators if policyholders make a plan change. But even in these states, it’s still worth checking with a specific insurer to see what approach they’re taking, as some are still developing their approach during this unique time.

What if my asthma ventolin side effects state’s not listed?. Insurance departments in the rest of the states haven’t put out any official guidance or bulletins regarding accumulator transfers, although these may still be forthcoming as the asthma treatment/ARP window progresses. Keep in mind that it will be July in most states before the ARP’s benefits are available for people receiving unemployment compensation in 2021, so this is still very much a work in progress and likely to evolve over time.States that have not yet issued specific guidance or clarified insurers positions on accumulator transfers include:AlabamaArizonaArkansasDelawareFloridaGeorgiaHawaiiIndianaIowaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineMississippiMissouriNebraskaNorth CarolinaOklahomaOregonSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTexasUtahWyomingIf you’re in one of these states, your insurer may or may not be transferring accumulators when enrollees switch to a new plan in 2021. If you’ve had significant out-of-pocket medical spending so far asthma ventolin side effects this year, be sure to reach out to your insurer to see how they’re handling this.

And if a representative tells you that accumulators will transfer, it’s a good idea to get confirmation in writing.And if your insurer initially says no, keep asking over the coming days and weeks. We’ve seen some insurers start to offer accumulator transfers after initially stating that they didn’t plan to do so, and it’s possible that other insurers might follow suit.To switch or not to switch?. So what asthma ventolin side effects should you do if you’ve already spent some money out-of-pocket this year, and you’re going to have to start over at $0 on a new plan?. Maybe you’re enrolled in a grandmothered or grandfathered plan and your insurer simply doesn’t offer plans for sale in the marketplace.

Depending on where you live, this might asthma ventolin side effects also be the case if you have an ACA-compliant off-exchange plan, as not all off-exchange insurers sell plans in the exchange. And as noted above, it might also be the case even if you want to transfer from one ACA-compliant plan to another. (But check with both the insurer and the insurance department in your state before giving up on accumulator transfers in that situation.)Really, it just comes down to the math. Will the amount you’re going to save due to premium tax credit (and possibly cost-sharing reductions, if you’re eligible for them and switching to a Silver plan) offset the loss you’ll take by having to start over at $0 on your deductible and asthma ventolin side effects out-of-pocket exposure?.

If you haven’t spent much this year, the answer is probably Yes. If you’ve already met your maximum out-of-pocket for the year, it’s probably going to asthma ventolin side effects be a tougher decision.But don’t assume that it’s not worth your while. Depending on the circumstances (especially if you were previously impacted by the “subsidy cliff” and are newly eligible for subsidies), your new subsidies might be worth more than you’d be giving up by having to start over with new out-of-pocket costs.And if you’re part of the way toward meeting your deductible on a Bronze plan and are newly eligible for a free or very low-cost Silver plan that includes cost-sharing reductions, you might find that the new plan ultimately saves you money in out-of-pocket costs for the rest of the year, even if your accumulators don’t transfer.Louise Norris is an individual health insurance broker who has been writing about health insurance and health reform since 2006. She has written dozens of opinions and educational pieces about the Affordable Care Act for healthinsurance.org.

Her state health insurance marketplace updates are regularly cited by media asthma ventolin side effects who cover health reform and by other health insurance experts.It’s been a widely held conclusion in the health insurance industry and among health policy types that one of our biggest hurdles lies with the challenge of getting coverage for “young invincibles” – Americans old enough to vote but under 30. That label itself is tied to a widely held perception that – because of their youth – “twenty-somethings” believe they’re healthy enough that they simply won’t need all of the bells and whistles of comprehensive health insurance (any time soon, at least).As an agent and an avid observer of health insurance trends, I know it’s not that simple. Young adults, in many cases, are keenly aware of their need for comprehensive coverage. But – despite various federal and state efforts to make coverage more affordable and accessible (including provisions of the American Rescue Plan) – there are definitely barriers making it difficult for young adults to enter the individual health insurance market.Last week, I spoke with Carolyn Kettig, a young woman who’s asthma ventolin side effects determined to get coverage but facing barriers that many young Americans face.

Carolyn Kettig is a professional actor in New York, and has thus far maintained health coverage under her mother’s policy. But that will end this summer, when Carolyn turns asthma ventolin side effects 26. She shares her story with me here, and I’ve added my own commentary wherever it might help readers in similar situations understand their coverage options.Before we begin, it’s worth noting that because Carolyn lives in New York, she has access to a Basic Health Program. New York and Minnesota are the only states that offer these programs, and they’re an excellent coverage option for people who are eligible to enroll.

But if you’re not in New York or Minnesota, you’ve still got plenty of options.That’s particularly true now that the American Rescue Plan has been enacted, making premium subsidies larger and more widely available asthma ventolin side effects. For many young people, the American Rescue Plan makes robust coverage much more affordable than it used to be. (Previously, it was common for young people to feel like their only truly affordable health coverage option was a plan with a deductible that may have felt impossibly high).Louise. What’s your current insurance asthma ventolin side effects situation and how is it changing this year?.

What are your options for coverage?. Carolyn. I’m lucky enough to currently be covered by my mother’s health insurance. She has a very generous insurance plan and I’ve been privileged to, thus far, be fully covered.

Unfortunately, because I’m turning 26, I’ll be losing coverage this spring.As a professional actor, my early twenties were filled with countless side jobs that supported me as I sought acting work in New York City. None of these jobs ever came with healthcare benefits, which at the time was okay as I was covered by my mother’s plan. Three years ago, when I landed my first big theater job, I had the opportunity to join the actor’s union, which among many other wonderful things, provides working actors with comprehensive, affordable health insurance.The only catch, and it’s a fairly large one, is that an actor must work a certain number of weeks in order to qualify. Even without a ventolin, finding steady work in the theater is difficult.

Factor in a ventolin that shutters theaters for over a year and causes the union to hemorrhage money … needless to say, healthcare coverage in my industry has become a near impossibility.I’m hopeful that live entertainment will return in a vaccinated world, but until then, I’m doing my best to make enough money to pay my bills. I’m grateful to be employed part-time as a program director for a teen program. My job has kept me afloat during this devastating time, but, unfortunately, does not come with healthcare benefits. I make very little money and live paycheck to paycheck, which leaves me relatively few options when it comes to insurance.

I will most likely go with New York State’s Essential Plan, which is the best option for low-income people who make too much money to qualify for Medicaid.Louise. The Essential Plan is New York’s Basic Health Program (BHP), which is available to people earning up to 200% of the poverty level. (For a single person in 2021, that amounts to $25,760.) The Affordable Care Act allowed for the creation of BHPs, but New York and Minnesota are the only states that have opted to establish them.The Essential Plan provides robust health coverage with no monthly premium, and it has much lower cost-sharing than we typically see in the individual/family health insurance market. The Essential Plan is also being enhanced as of June 2021.

Previously, some enrollees had to pay $20/month, and there was an extra premium for dental and vision coverage. Dental and vision are now included at no cost.Louise. How much is the need for coverage weighing on you and other people your age?. Carolyn.

I’ve lost sleep over this!. It weighs on me heavily. Having grown up in New York, I have a long history with some of my doctors, most of whom will not accept my new insurance plan. This means that I will either be forced to find new doctors or pay hundreds of dollars out of pocket for routine check-ups.I’m also aware that, even with insurance coverage, an unexpected hospital stay could cost me thousands of dollars.

It makes me enraged to know that, in an emergency situation, I would avoid going to the hospital because of the cost.Louise. The Essential Plan provides much more robust coverage than people may be used to seeing elsewhere. There is no deductible, emergency room visits cost $75, and inpatient hospital stays are only $150 per admission – and these fees are waived altogether for enrollees with income up to 150% of the poverty level, or a little more than $19,000 for a single person. This is better coverage than most people have even with higher-end employer-sponsored plans.Carolyn.

I know that I’m not alone in this. Especially since my generation is now living through a global health crisis, I think my peers are more aware than ever before of how broken our healthcare system really is. Moreover, as a white, cisgendered woman from a middle-class background, I’m cognizant of the privilege my identities afford me and deeply disturbed by the ways in which our healthcare system disregards and harms BIPOC, low-income families, LGBTQIA+ youth, and undocumented workers (many of whom are essential workers and yet have little access to healthcare coverage) among many others. Alongside the climate crisis and the fight for racial equality, I believe that healthcare reform will dominate the American political landscape for the next few decades.Louise.

I agree that our healthcare system is in need of extensive reform. The American Rescue Plan, enacted just last month, is the first major change we’ve seen since the Affordable Care Act was signed into law 11 years ago. It includes some substantial improvements designed to make health coverage more affordable and accessible.But these improvements are temporary unless Congress takes additional action to make them permanent. And there are other issues, such as the ACA’s family glitch, and the Medicaid coverage gap that exists in the dozen states that have refused to expand Medicaid, that haven’t yet been fixed.

Fortunately, lawmakers in Congress are continuing to push forward on these issues, and voters can reach out to their elected officials to express their opinions.Louise. What do you see as challenges in this situation?. Carolyn. I’ve mentioned many challenges already, but I think chief among them is simply how confusing and difficult it is to make informed choices.

Reading about insurance options requires learning an entirely new language and navigating nearly impenetrable websites.Louise. For folks who are confused by the terminology and concepts that go along with health insurance, our glossary is a great resource. We’ve incorporated plenty of details, since that’s where the nuances always are. And we’ve focused on explaining things using plain language that’s easy to understand.Help from the American Rescue PlanLouise.

Are you aware of the changes that the American Rescue Plan has made?. Do you think it will make it easier for you to access coverage?. Carolyn. I’ve read a bit about the changes made by the American Rescue Plan and am thrilled that this administration is attempting to expand access to healthcare (even though I’d love to see more substantial reform).

I don’t think that I will be impacted directly by the bill because I already live in a state that offers an affordable plan for people in my income bracket.Louise. If you lived in another state, the American Rescue Plan would make your coverage more affordable. But you’re correct. Assuming your 2021 income doesn’t exceed 200% of the poverty level (about $25,760), you’ll be eligible for either The Essential Plan or Medicaid in New York, both of which are already robust coverage with no monthly premiums.But for others in a similar situation who live elsewhere, the American Rescue Plan implements a variety of improvements that make it easier for young people to transition to their own coverage.

Among other provisions, the American Rescue Plan. Louise. What do you expect to happen with your coverage this summer?. Do you have a good idea of the plan you’ll be on after you transition away from your mom’s coverage, or is it still up in the air?.

Carolyn. Fortunately, through The Actors Fund, I have access to a professional who will guide me through the process of finding a plan, although I’m fairly certain I will end up on the Essential Plan.I’ve been told to begin the process a couple months before I lose coverage, so that’s coming up very soon!. I also have many friends who are in a similar situation or have already gone through the process, so I expect I’ll be texting them a whole lot. Even though I’m anxious about navigating the system on my own for the first time, I feel well supported as I approach this transition.Louise.

As you’re going through this insurance transition, what do you feel are the most important things for other people your age to keep in mind?. Carolyn. I think it’s important to do your research, seek out trusted professionals or peers to guide you, and ask a lot of questions. The system is designed to be confusing and ultimately benefit insurance companies, so I believe the more questions you ask, the better positioned you’ll be to advocate for yourself.

Get acquainted with the vocabulary and make sure you know the basic terms (i.e. Premium, deductible, out of pocket maximum, in-network, enrollment period). And if you’re uninsured for a period of time, know that you can find sliding scale clinics, sliding scale hospital services, and assistance paying for prescription drugs. Your health, both physical and mental, is of utmost importance!.

Louise. The advice to seek out assistance and ask lots of questions is spot-on. There are no silly questions, and any question you might have about health insurance is certainly shared by plenty of other people.Thanks to the American Rescue Plan, there has never been a better time to be transitioning to your own health insurance policy. And even if you’re not experiencing a qualifying event (such as aging off of a parent’s health insurance policy), there’s a asthma treatment-related enrollment window that runs through August 15 in most states, giving people an opportunity to enroll and take advantage of the newly enhanced premium subsidies.And in every community, there are navigators, enrollment counselors, and health insurance brokers who can help you pick a plan and answer any questions you might have.

We also have an extensive collection of FAQs, including several that are specific to young adults.Louise Norris is an individual health insurance broker who has been writing about health insurance and health reform since 2006. She has written dozens of opinions and educational pieces about the Affordable Care Act for healthinsurance.org. Her state health exchange updates are regularly cited by media who cover health reform and by other health insurance experts..

For millions of can i get ventolin over the counter uk Americans http://gwinnettpearlsofservice.com/http:/http:/gwinnettpearlsofservice.com/ who don’t have access to employer-sponsored or government-run health insurance, the American Rescue Plan (ARP) does a lot to make health coverage more affordable this year. Premium subsidies are larger, and more people will qualify for premium-free plans, including anyone receiving unemployment compensation at any point in 2021.If you’re currently uninsured or enrolled in something like a short-term plan or health care sharing ministry plan and you’ve become eligible for premium subsidies as a result of the ARP, it’s likely an obvious choice to enroll in a plan through the marketplace in your state as soon as possible. And there’s a asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window that continues through August 15 in most states, making it easy to enroll in a new plan and take advantage of the new subsidies.But if you’re already enrolled in an ACA-compliant plan, or even a grandmothered or grandfathered major can i get ventolin over the counter uk medical plan, you’ll have to decide whether you want to make a plan change during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window.

And depending on the circumstances, it might not be an easy decision.Are out-of-pocket costs you’ve paid making you think twice?. Unlike plan changes made during open enrollment, plan changes made during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window will take effect mid-year. And for people who have already paid some or all of their deductible and out-of-pocket costs this year, that adds an extra layer of complication to the switch-or-not decision.Use our updated subsidy calculator to estimate how much you can save on your 2021 health insurance premiums.Normally, the general rule of thumb is that if you can i get ventolin over the counter uk switch to a new plan mid-year, you’re going to be starting over at $0 on the new plan’s deductible and out-of-pocket expenses.

(These are called accumulators, since it’s a running total of the expenses you’ve accumulated toward your out-of-pocket maximum). For someone whose accumulators have already amounted to a sizable sum of money this year, having to start over at $0 in the middle of the year could can i get ventolin over the counter uk be a deal-breaker.Are ARP’s higher subsidies worth it?. But 2021 is not a normal year.

The ARP has made significant changes to subsidy amounts and eligibility, and a lot of people will find that switching plans enables them to best take advantage of the enhanced subsidies. For example:A person who previously enrolled off-exchange in order to take advantage of the “Silver switch” approach to cost-sharing reduction funding, and who is now eligible for a premium subsidy in the exchange.A person who enrolled in a Bronze plan during open enrollment but is now eligible for a $0 premium or low-premium Silver or Gold plan (depending on location) due to income or unemployment compensation.A can i get ventolin over the counter uk person who was eligible for cost-sharing reductions but selected a Bronze or Gold plan during open enrollment because the Silver plans were too expensive, but who can now afford the Silver plan due to the extra subsidies (cost-sharing reductions are only available on Silver plans)If you switch plans, will you have to start over at zero?. The good news is that many states, state-run marketplaces, and insurers have taken action to ensure that accumulators will transfer to a new plan.

(In virtually all cases, this does have to be a new plan with the same insurer — if you switch to a different insurance company, you’ll almost certainly have to start over at $0 on your accumulators.)HealthCare.gov is the exchange/marketplace that’s used in 36 states. Its official position is that “any consumer who selects a new plan may can i get ventolin over the counter uk have their accumulators, such as deductibles, reset to zero.” But insurance commissioners in some of those states have stepped in to require insurers to transfer accumulators, and in other states, all of the insurers have voluntarily agreed to do so. Washington, DC, and 14 states have state-run marketplaces, and several of them have announced that insurers will transfer accumulators.Which states are helping with accumulators?.

We’ve combed through communications from state-run can i get ventolin over the counter uk marketplaces and state insurance commissioners to see which ones have issued guidance on this. But regardless of where you live, your best bet is to reach out to your insurance company before you make a plan change. Find out exactly how they’re handling accumulators during this enrollment window, and if they are transferring accumulators to new plans, make sure that you adhere to whatever requirements they may have in place.That said, here’s what we found in terms of how states and state-run marketplaces are addressing accumulators and mid-year plan changes in 2021.States where all accumulators will transfer as long as your old and new plans are offered by the same insurance companyColoradoDistrict of Columbia – The marketplace has confirmed that all accumulators will transfer.Idaho – Idaho only allowed people to switch to a plan offered by their current insurer, unless they had a qualifying event.

Note that Idaho’s asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window ended April 30, which is much earlier than the rest of the country.Maryland – Plan changes are limited to upgrades, but the marketplace confirmed that accumulators will transfer.Michigan – Deductibles will transfer, although can i get ventolin over the counter uk some insurers will only allow this if you’re upgrading your plan. (Two insurers are allowing deductible transfers even if you’re switching from a different insurer’s plan.)Minnesota – Minnesota is currently not allowing marketplace enrollees to switch plans during the asthma treatment/ARP enrollment window, although this may change within the next several weeks. So for now, the accumulator transfers only apply to people can i get ventolin over the counter uk switching from an off-exchange plan to an on-exchange plan.

All four of the insurers that offer both on-exchange and off-exchange plans have agreed to transfer accumulators to the on-exchange plans.New MexicoNew YorkTennesseeVermont – Like Minnesota, Vermont is currently only allowing people to switch from off-exchange (full-cost individual direct enrollment) to on-exchange plans. Accumulators will transfer for those plan changes.West Virginia — The WV Office of the Insurance Commissioner confirmed that both insurers are transferring accumulators, with the exception of a transfer between an HSA-qualified plan and a non-HSA-qualified plan (mainly due to IRS regulations for how HSA-qualified plans must handle out-of-pocket costs).Wisconsin – Covering Wisconsin, a nonprofit enrollment assistance organization, notes that accumulators will not transfer if people select a plan from a different insurer, which is to be expected.In some states, rules are slightly more complicatedAlaska – Deductibles will reset to $0 if a policyholder is switching from off-exchange to on-exchange (or vice-versa), but will not reset if the move is from one exchange plan to another, with the same insurer.California – The marketplace has confirmed that insurers will transfer accumulators for plan holders switching from an off-exchange plan to an on-exchange plan or from one exchange plan to another, as long as they stay with the same insurance company and the same type of managed care plan (ie, HMO to HMO, or PPO to PPO).New Jersey – Deductibles will transfer, possibly even to a new insurer (which is fairly unique. We aren’t aware of this can i get ventolin over the counter uk elsewhere, other than the two Michigan insurers that are offering it).

But additional out-of-pocket spending will not transfer to the new plan.States where the official word is that ‘it depends’Several states have addressed accumulator transfers so that consumers know to be aware of them, but are leaving the decision up to the insurers. In these states (listed below), some or all of the insurers may be offering accumulator transfers, but consumers should definitely ask their insurer how this will work before making the decision to switch plans.ConnecticutMassachusettsNevadaNew HampshireOhioMontanaNorth Dakota — the ND Insurance Department is recommending that consumers reach out to their insurance company to see how this is being handled.PennsylvaniaRhode Island – There are two insurers that offer plans in Rhode Island’s marketplace. One has agreed to transfer accumulators and one has not, but the marketplace is still working to address this and it’s possible both insurers could end up allowing accumulators to transfer.WashingtonStates where the official word is that accumulators will not transferSome states have fairly clearly indicated that insurers will not transfer accumulators if can i get ventolin over the counter uk policyholders make a plan change.

But even in these states, it’s still worth checking with a specific insurer to see what approach they’re taking, as some are still developing their approach during this unique time. What if my state’s not can i get ventolin over the counter uk listed?. Insurance departments in the rest of the states haven’t put out any official guidance or bulletins regarding accumulator transfers, although these may still be forthcoming as the asthma treatment/ARP window progresses.

Keep in mind that it will be July in most states before the ARP’s benefits are available for people receiving unemployment compensation in 2021, so this is still very much a work in progress and likely to evolve over time.States that have not yet issued specific guidance or clarified insurers positions on accumulator transfers include:AlabamaArizonaArkansasDelawareFloridaGeorgiaHawaiiIndianaIowaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineMississippiMissouriNebraskaNorth CarolinaOklahomaOregonSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTexasUtahWyomingIf you’re in one of these states, your insurer may or may not be transferring accumulators when enrollees switch to a new plan in 2021. If you’ve had significant out-of-pocket can i get ventolin over the counter uk medical spending so far this year, be sure to reach out to your insurer to see how they’re handling this. And if a representative tells you that accumulators will transfer, it’s a good idea to get confirmation in writing.And if your insurer initially says no, keep asking over the coming days and weeks.

We’ve seen some insurers start to offer accumulator transfers after initially stating that they didn’t plan to do so, and it’s possible that other insurers might follow suit.To switch or not to switch?. So what should you do if you’ve already can i get ventolin over the counter uk spent some money out-of-pocket this year, and you’re going to have to start over at $0 on a new plan?. Maybe you’re enrolled in a grandmothered or grandfathered plan and your insurer simply doesn’t offer plans for sale in the marketplace.

Depending on where you live, this might can i get ventolin over the counter uk also be the case if you have an ACA-compliant off-exchange plan, as not all off-exchange insurers sell plans in the exchange. And as noted above, it might also be the case even if you want to transfer from one ACA-compliant plan to another. (But check with both the insurer and the insurance department in your state before giving up on accumulator transfers in that situation.)Really, it just comes down to the math.

Will the amount you’re going to save due to premium tax credit can i get ventolin over the counter uk (and possibly cost-sharing reductions, if you’re eligible for them and switching to a Silver plan) offset the loss you’ll take by having to start over at $0 on your deductible and out-of-pocket exposure?. If you haven’t spent much this year, the answer is probably Yes. If you’ve can i get ventolin over the counter uk already met your maximum out-of-pocket for the year, it’s probably going to be a tougher decision.But don’t assume that it’s not worth your while.

Depending on the circumstances (especially if you were previously impacted by the “subsidy cliff” and are newly eligible for subsidies), your new subsidies might be worth more than you’d be giving up by having to start over with new out-of-pocket costs.And if you’re part of the way toward meeting your deductible on a Bronze plan and are newly eligible for a free or very low-cost Silver plan that includes cost-sharing reductions, you might find that the new plan ultimately saves you money in out-of-pocket costs for the rest of the year, even if your accumulators don’t transfer.Louise Norris is an individual health insurance broker who has been writing about health insurance and health reform since 2006. She has written dozens of opinions and educational pieces about the Affordable Care Act for healthinsurance.org. Her state health insurance marketplace updates are regularly cited by media who cover health reform and by other health insurance experts.It’s been a widely held conclusion in the health insurance industry and among health policy types that one of our biggest can i get ventolin over the counter uk hurdles lies with the challenge of getting coverage for “young invincibles” – Americans old enough to vote but under 30.

That label itself is tied to a widely held perception that – because of their youth – “twenty-somethings” believe they’re healthy enough that they simply won’t need all of the bells and whistles of comprehensive health insurance (any time soon, at least).As an agent and an avid observer of health insurance trends, I know it’s not that simple. Young adults, in many cases, are keenly aware of their need for comprehensive coverage. But – can i get ventolin over the counter uk despite various federal and state efforts to make coverage more affordable and accessible (including provisions of the American Rescue Plan) – there are definitely barriers making it difficult for young adults to enter the individual health insurance market.Last week, I spoke with Carolyn Kettig, a young woman who’s determined to get coverage but facing barriers that many young Americans face.

Carolyn Kettig is a professional actor in New York, and has thus far maintained health coverage under her mother’s policy. But that will end this summer, when Carolyn turns 26 can i get ventolin over the counter uk. She shares her story with me here, and I’ve added my own commentary wherever it might help readers in similar situations understand their coverage options.Before we begin, it’s worth noting that because Carolyn lives in New York, she has access to a Basic Health Program.

New York and Minnesota are the only states that offer these programs, and they’re an excellent coverage option for people who are eligible to enroll. But if you’re not in New York or Minnesota, you’ve can i get ventolin over the counter uk still got plenty of options.That’s particularly true now that the American Rescue Plan has been enacted, making premium subsidies larger and more widely available. For many young people, the American Rescue Plan makes robust coverage much more affordable than it used to be.

(Previously, it was common for young people to feel like their only truly affordable health coverage option was a plan with a deductible that may have felt impossibly high).Louise. What’s your current insurance situation and how can i get ventolin over the counter uk is it changing this year?. What are your options for coverage?.

Carolyn. I’m lucky enough to currently be covered by my mother’s health insurance. She has a very generous insurance plan and I’ve been privileged to, thus far, be fully covered.

Unfortunately, because I’m turning 26, I’ll be losing coverage this spring.As a professional actor, my early twenties were filled with countless side jobs that supported me as I sought acting work in New York City. None of these jobs ever came with healthcare benefits, which at the time was okay as I was covered by my mother’s plan. Three years ago, when I landed my first big theater job, I had the opportunity to join the actor’s union, which among many other wonderful things, provides working actors with comprehensive, affordable health insurance.The only catch, and it’s a fairly large one, is that an actor must work a certain number of weeks in order to qualify.

Even without a ventolin, finding steady work in the theater is difficult. Factor in a ventolin that shutters theaters for over a year and causes the union to hemorrhage money … needless to say, healthcare coverage in my industry has become a near impossibility.I’m hopeful that live entertainment will return in a vaccinated world, but until then, I’m doing my best to make enough money to pay my bills. I’m grateful to be employed part-time as a program director for a teen program.

My job has kept me afloat during this devastating time, but, unfortunately, does not come with healthcare benefits. I make very little money and live paycheck to paycheck, which leaves me relatively few options when it comes to insurance. I will most likely go with New York State’s Essential Plan, which is the best option for low-income people who make too much money to qualify for Medicaid.Louise.

The Essential Plan is New York’s Basic Health Program (BHP), which is available to people earning up to 200% of the poverty level. (For a single person in 2021, that amounts to $25,760.) The Affordable Care Act allowed for the creation of BHPs, but New York and Minnesota are the only states that have opted to establish them.The Essential Plan provides robust health coverage with no monthly premium, and it has much lower cost-sharing than we typically see in the individual/family health insurance market. The Essential Plan is also being enhanced as of June 2021.

Previously, some enrollees had to pay $20/month, and there was an extra premium for dental and vision coverage. Dental and vision are now included at no cost.Louise. How much is the need for coverage weighing on you and other people your age?.

Carolyn. I’ve lost sleep over this!. It weighs on me heavily.

Having grown up in New York, I have a long history with some of my doctors, most of whom will not accept my new insurance plan. This means that I will either be forced to find new doctors or pay hundreds of dollars out of pocket for routine check-ups.I’m also aware that, even with insurance coverage, an unexpected hospital stay could cost me thousands of dollars. It makes me enraged to know that, in an emergency situation, I would avoid going to the hospital because of the cost.Louise.

The Essential Plan provides much more robust coverage than people may be used to seeing elsewhere. There is no deductible, emergency room visits cost $75, and inpatient hospital stays are only $150 per admission – and these fees are waived altogether for enrollees with income up to 150% of the poverty level, or a little more than $19,000 for a single person. This is better coverage than most people have even with higher-end employer-sponsored plans.Carolyn.

I know that I’m not alone in this. Especially since my generation is now living through a global health crisis, I think my peers are more aware than ever before of how broken our healthcare system really is. Moreover, as a white, cisgendered woman from a middle-class background, I’m cognizant of the privilege my identities afford me and deeply disturbed by the ways in which our healthcare system disregards and harms BIPOC, low-income families, LGBTQIA+ youth, and undocumented workers (many of whom are essential workers and yet have little access to healthcare coverage) among many others.

Alongside the climate crisis and the fight for racial equality, I believe that healthcare reform will dominate the American political landscape for the next few decades.Louise. I agree that our healthcare system is in need of extensive reform. The American Rescue Plan, enacted just last month, is the first major change we’ve seen since the Affordable Care Act was signed into law 11 years ago.

It includes some substantial improvements designed to make health coverage more affordable and accessible.But these improvements are temporary unless Congress takes additional action to make them permanent. And there are other issues, such as the ACA’s family glitch, and the Medicaid coverage gap that exists in the dozen states that have refused to expand Medicaid, that haven’t yet been fixed. Fortunately, lawmakers in Congress are continuing to push forward on these issues, and voters can reach out to their elected officials to express their opinions.Louise.

What do you see as challenges in this situation?. Carolyn. I’ve mentioned many challenges already, but I think chief among them is simply how confusing and difficult it is to make informed choices.

Reading about insurance options requires learning an entirely new language and navigating nearly impenetrable websites.Louise. For folks who are confused by the terminology and concepts that go along with health insurance, our glossary is a great resource. We’ve incorporated plenty of details, since that’s where the nuances always are.

And we’ve focused on explaining things using plain language that’s easy to understand.Help from the American Rescue PlanLouise. Are you aware of the changes that the American Rescue Plan has made?. Do you think it will make it easier for you to access coverage?.

Carolyn. I’ve read a bit about the changes made by the American Rescue Plan and am thrilled that this administration is attempting to expand access to healthcare (even though I’d love to see more substantial reform). I don’t think that I will be impacted directly by the bill because I already live in a state that offers an affordable plan for people in my income bracket.Louise.

If you lived in another state, the American Rescue Plan would make your coverage more affordable. But you’re correct. Assuming your 2021 income doesn’t exceed 200% of the poverty level (about $25,760), you’ll be eligible for either The Essential Plan or Medicaid in New York, both of which are already robust coverage with no monthly premiums.But for others in a similar situation who live elsewhere, the American Rescue Plan implements a variety of improvements that make it easier for young people to transition to their own coverage.

Among other provisions, the American Rescue Plan. Louise. What do you expect to happen with your coverage this summer?.

Do you have a good idea of the plan you’ll be on after you transition away from your mom’s coverage, or is it still up in the air?. Carolyn. Fortunately, through The Actors Fund, I have access to a professional who will guide me through the process of finding a plan, although I’m fairly certain I will end up on the Essential Plan.I’ve been told to begin the process a couple months before I lose coverage, so that’s coming up very soon!.

I also have many friends who are in a similar situation or have already gone through the process, so I expect I’ll be texting them a whole lot. Even though I’m anxious about navigating the system on my own for the first time, I feel well supported as I approach this transition.Louise. As you’re going through this insurance transition, what do you feel are the most important things for other people your age to keep in mind?.

Carolyn. I think it’s important to do your research, seek out trusted professionals or peers to guide you, and ask a lot of questions. The system is designed to be confusing and ultimately benefit insurance companies, so I believe the more questions you ask, the better positioned you’ll be to advocate for yourself.

Get acquainted with the vocabulary and make sure you know the basic terms (i.e. Premium, deductible, out of pocket maximum, in-network, enrollment period). And if you’re uninsured for a period of time, know that you can find sliding scale clinics, sliding scale hospital services, and assistance paying for prescription drugs.

Your health, both physical and mental, is of utmost importance!. Louise. The advice to seek out assistance and ask lots of questions is spot-on.

There are no silly questions, and any question you might have about health insurance is certainly shared by plenty of other people.Thanks to the American Rescue Plan, there has never been a better time to be transitioning to your own health insurance policy. And even if you’re not experiencing a qualifying event (such as aging off of a parent’s health insurance policy), there’s a asthma treatment-related enrollment window that runs through August 15 in most states, giving people an opportunity to enroll and take advantage of the newly enhanced premium subsidies.And in every community, there are navigators, enrollment counselors, and health insurance brokers who can help you pick a plan and answer any questions you might have. We also have an extensive collection of FAQs, including several that are specific to young adults.Louise Norris is an individual health insurance broker who has been writing about health insurance and health reform since 2006.

She has written dozens of opinions and educational pieces about the Affordable Care Act for healthinsurance.org. Her state health exchange updates are regularly cited by media who cover health reform and by other health insurance experts..

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AbstractBrazil is currently home to ventolin expectorant capsule price the largest Japanese population outside https://gaileylawgroup.com/best-online-viagra/ of Japan. In Brazil today, Japanese-Brazilians are considered to be successful members of Brazilian society. This was not always the ventolin expectorant capsule price case, however, and Japanese immigrants to Brazil endured much hardship to attain their current level of prestige.

This essay explores this community’s trajectory towards the formation of the Japanese-Brazilian identity and the issues of mental health that arise in this immigrant community. Through the analysis of Japanese-Brazilian novels, TV shows, film and public health studies, I seek to disentangle the themes of gender and modernisation, and how these themes concurrently grapple with Japanese-Brazilian mental health issues. These fictional narratives provide a lens into the experience of the Japanese-Brazilian community that is unavailable in traditional medical studies about their mental health.filmliterature and medicinemental health caregender studiesmedical humanitiesData availability statementData are available in a public, open access repository.Introduction and philosophical backgroundWork in the medical humanities has noted the importance of the ‘medical gaze’ and how it may ‘see’ the patient in ways which ventolin expectorant capsule price are specific, while possessing broad significance, in relation to developing medical knowledge.

To diagnosis. And to the social position of the medical profession.1 Some authors have emphasised that vision is a distinctive modality of perception which merits its own consideration, and which may have a particular role to play in medical education and understanding.2 3 The clothing we wear has a strong impact on how ventolin expectorant capsule price we are perceived. For example, commentary in this journal on the ‘white coat’ observes that while it may rob the medical doctor of individuality, it nonetheless grants an elevated status4.

In contrast, the patient hospital gown may rob patients of individuality in a way that stigmatises them,5 reducing their status in the ward, and ultimately dehumanises them, in conflict with the humanistic approaches seen as central to the best practice in the care of older patients, and particularly those living with dementia.6The broad context of our concern is the visibility of patients and their needs. We draw on observations made during an ethnographic study of the everyday care of people living with dementia within acute hospital wards, to consider how patients’ clothing may impact on the ventolin expectorant capsule price way they were perceived by themselves and by others. Hence, we draw on this ethnography to contribute to discussion of the ‘medical gaze’ in a specific and informative context.The acute setting illustrates a situation in which there are great many biomedical, technical, recording, and timetabled routine task-oriented demands, organised and delivered by different staff members, together with demands for care and attention to particular individuals and an awareness of their needs.

Within this ward setting, we focus on patients who are living with dementia, since this group may be particularly vulnerable to a dehumanising gaze.6 We frame our discussion within the broader context of the general philosophical question of how we acquire knowledge of different types, and the moral consequences of this, particularly knowledge through visual perception.Debates throughout the history of philosophy raise questions about the nature and sources of our knowledge. Contrasts are often drawn between more reliable ventolin expectorant capsule price or less reliable knowledge. And between knowledge that is more technical or ‘objective’, and knowledge that is more emotionally based or more ‘subjective’.

A frequent point ventolin expectorant capsule price of discussion is the reliability and characteristics of perception as a source of knowledge. This epistemological discussion is mostly focused on vision, indicating its particular importance as a mode of perception to humans.7Likewise, in ethics, there is discussion of the origin of our moral knowledge and the particular role of perception.8 There is frequent recognition that the observer has some significant role in acquiring moral knowledge. Attention to qualities of the moral observer is not in itself a denial of moral reality.

Indeed, it is the very essence ventolin expectorant capsule price of an ethical response to the world to recognise the deep reality of others as separate persons. The nature of ethical attention to the world and to those around us is debated and has been articulated in various ways. The quality of ethical attention may vary and achieving a high level of ethical attention may require certain conditions, certain virtues, and the time and mental space to attend to the situation and claims of the other.9Consideration has already been given to how different modes of attention to the world might be of relevance to the practice of medicine.

Work that examines different ways of processing information, and of interacting with and being in the world, can ventolin expectorant capsule price be found in Iain McGilchrist’s The Master and His Emissary,10 where he draws on neurological discoveries and applies his ideas to the development of human culture. McGilchrist has recently expanded on the relevance of understanding two different approaches to knowledge for the practice of medicine.11 He argues that task-oriented perception, and a wider, more emotionally attuned awareness of the environment are necessary partners, but may in some circumstances compete, with the competitive edge often being given to the narrower, task-based attention.There has been critique of McGilchrist’s arguments as well as much support. We find his work a useful framework for understanding important ventolin expectorant capsule price debates in the ethics of medicine and of nursing about relationships of staff to patients.

In particular, it helps to illuminate the consequences of patients’ dress and personal appearance for how they are seen and treated.Dementia and personal appearanceOur work focuses on patients living with dementia admitted to acute hospital wards. Here, they are a large group, present alongside older patients unaffected by dementia, as well as younger patients. This mixed population provides a useful setting to consider the impact of personal appearance on different patient groups.The role of appearance in the presentation of the self has been explored extensively by Tseëlon,12 13 drawing on Goffman’s work on stigma5 ventolin expectorant capsule price and the presentation of the self14 using interactionist approaches.

Drawing on the experiences on women in the UK, Tseëlon argues Goffman’s interactionist approach best supports how we understand the relationship appearance plays in self presentation, and its relationships with other signs and interactions surrounding it. Tseëlon suggests that understandings in this area, in the role appearance and clothing have in the presentation of the self, have been restricted by the perceived trivialities of the topic and limited to the field of fashion studies.15The personal appearance of older patients, and patients living with dementia in particular, has, more recently, been shown to be worthy of attention and of particular significance. Older people are often assumed to be left out of fashion, yet a concern with appearance remains.16 17 Lack of attention to clothing and to personal care may be one sign of the varied symptoms associated with cognitive impairment or dementia, and so ventolin expectorant capsule price conversely, attention to appearance is one way of combatting the stigma associated with dementia.

Families and carers may also feel the importance of personal appearance. The significant body of work by Twigg and Buse in this field in particular draws attention to the role clothing has on preserving the identity and dignity or people living with dementia, while ventolin expectorant capsule price also constraining and enabling elements of care within long-term community settings.16–19 Within this paper, we examine the ways in which these phenomena can be even more acutely felt within the impersonal setting of the acute hospital.Work has also shown how people living with dementia strongly retain a felt, bodily appreciation for the importance of personal appearance. The comfort and sensuous feel of familiar clothing may remain, even after cognitive capacities such as the ability to recognise oneself in a mirror, or verbal fluency, are lost.18 More strongly still, Kontos,20–22 drawing on the work of Merleau-Ponty and of Bourdieu, has convincingly argued that this attention to clothing and personal appearance is an important aspect of the maintenance of a bodily sense of self, which is also socially mediated, in part via such attention to appearance.

Our observations lend support to Kontos’ hypothesis.Much of this previous work has considered clothing in the everyday life of people living with dementia in the context of community or long-term residential care.18 Here, we look at the visual impact of clothing and appearance in the different setting of the hospital ward and consider the consequent implications for patient care. This setting enables us to consider ventolin expectorant capsule price how the short-term and unfamiliar environments of the acute ward, together with the contrast between personal and institutional attire, impact on the perception of the patient by self and by others.There is a body of literature that examines the work of restoring the appearance of residents within long-term community care settings, for instance Ward et al’s work that demonstrates the importance of hair and grooming as a key component of care.23 24 The work of Iltanen-Tähkävuori25 examines the usage of garments designed for long-term care settings, exploring the conflict between clothing used to prevent undressing or facilitate the delivery of care, and the distress such clothing can cause, being powerfully symbolic of lower social status and associated with reduced autonomy.26 27Within this literature, there has also been a significant focus on the role of clothing, appearance and the tasks of personal care surrounding it, on the older female body. A corpus of feminist literature has examined the ageing process and the use of clothing to conceal ageing, the presentation of a younger self, or a ‘certain’ age28 It argues that once the ability to conceal the ageing process through clothing and grooming has been lost, the aged person must instead conceal themselves, dressing to hide themselves and becoming invisible in the process.29 This paper will explore how institutional clothing within hospital wards affects both the male and female body, the presentation of the ageing body and its role in reinforcing the invisibility of older people, at a time when they are paradoxically most visible, unclothed and undressed, or wearing institutional clothing within the hospital ward.Institutional clothing is designed and used to fulfil a practical function.

Its use may therefore perhaps incline us towards a ‘task-based’ mode of attention, which as McGilchrist argues,10 while having a vital place in our understanding of the world, may on occasion interfere with the forms of attention that may be needed to deliver good person-oriented care responsive to individual needs.MethodsEthnography involves the in-depth study of people’s actions and accounts within their natural everyday setting, collecting relatively unstructured data from a range of sources.30 Importantly, it can take into account the perspectives of patients, carers and hospital staff.31 Our approach to ethnography is informed by the symbolic interactionist research tradition, which aims to provide an interpretive understanding of the social world, with an emphasis on interaction, focusing on understanding how action and meaning are constructed within a setting.32 The value of this approach is the depth of understanding and theory generation it can provide.33The goal of ethnography is to identify social processes within the data. There are multiple complex and nuanced interactions within these clinical settings that are capable of ‘communicating many messages at once, even of subverting on ventolin expectorant capsule price one level what it appears to be “saying” on another’.34 Thus, it is important to observe interaction and performance. How everyday care work is organised and delivered.

By obtaining observational data from within each institution on the everyday work of hospital wards, their family carers and the nursing and healthcare assistants (HCAs) who carry out this work, we can explore the ways in which hospital organisation, procedures and everyday care ventolin expectorant capsule price impact on care during a hospital admission. It remedies a common weakness in many qualitative studies, that what people say in interviews may differ from what they do or their private justifications to others.35Data collection (observations and interviews) and analysis were informed by the analytic tradition of grounded theory.36 There was no prior hypothesis testing and we used the constant comparative method and theoretical sampling whereby data collection (observation and interview data) and analysis are inter-related,36 37 and are carried out concurrently.38 39 The flexible nature of this approach is important, because it can allow us to increase the ‘analytic incisiveness’35 of the study. Preliminary analysis of data collected from individual sites informed the focus of later stages of sampling, data collection and analysis in other sites.Thus, sampling requires a flexible, pragmatic approach and purposive and maximum variation sampling (theoretical sampling) was used.

This included five hospitals selected to represent a range of hospitals types, geographies and socioeconomic ventolin expectorant capsule price catchments. Five hospitals were purposefully selected to represent a range of hospitals types. Two large university teaching hospitals, two medium-sized general hospitals and one smaller general hospital.

This included one urban, two inner city and two hospitals covering a mix of rural and ventolin expectorant capsule price suburban catchment areas, all situated within England and Wales.These sites represented a range of expertise and interventions in caring for people with dementia, from no formal expertise to the deployment of specialist dementia workers. Fractures, nutritional disorders, urinary tract and pneumonia40 41 are among the principal causes of admission to acute hospital settings among people with dementia. Thus, we focused observation within trauma and orthopaedic wards (80 days) and medical assessment units ventolin expectorant capsule price (MAU.

75 days).Across these sites, 155 days of observational fieldwork were carried out. At each of the five sites, a minimum of 30 days observation took place, split between the two ward types. Observations were ventolin expectorant capsule price carried out by two researchers, each working in clusters of 2–4 days over a 6-week period at each site.

A single day of observation could last a minimum of 2 hours and a maximum of 12 hours. A total of 684 hours of observation were conducted for this study. This produced approximately ventolin expectorant capsule price 600 000 words of observational fieldnotes that were transcribed, cleaned and anonymised (by KF and AN).

We also carried out ethnographic (during observation) interviews with trauma and orthopaedic ward (192 ethnographic interviews and 22 group interviews) and MAU (222 ethnographic interviews) staff (including nurses, HCAs, auxiliary and support staff and medical teams) as they cared for this patient group. This allowed us to question what they are doing and why, and what are the caring practices of ward staff when interacting with people living with dementia.Patients within these settings with a diagnosis ventolin expectorant capsule price of dementia were identified through ward nursing handover notes, patient records and board data with the assistance of ward staff. Following the provision of written and verbal information about the study, and the expression of willingness to take part, written consent was taken from patients, staff and visitors directly observed or spoken to as part of the study.To optimise the generalisability of our findings,42 our approach emphasises the importance of comparisons across sites,43 with theoretical saturation achieved following the search for negative cases, and on exploring a diverse and wide range of data.

When no additional empirical data were found, we concluded that the analytical categories were saturated.36 44Grounded theory and ethnography are complementary traditions, with grounded theory strengthening the ethnographic aims of achieving a theoretical interpretation of the data, while the ethnographic approach prevents a rigid application of grounded theory.35 Using an ethnographic approach can mean that everything within a setting is treated as data, which can lead to large volumes of unconnected data and a descriptive analysis.45 This approach provides a middle ground in which the ethnographer, often seen as a passive observer of the social world, uses grounded theory to provide a systematic approach to data collection and analysis that can be used to develop theory to address the interpretive realities of participants within this setting.35Patient and public involvementThe data presented in this paper are drawn from a wider ethnographic study supported by an advisory group of people living with dementia and their family carers. It was this advisory group that ventolin expectorant capsule price informed us of the need of a better understanding of the impacts of the everyday care received by people living with dementia in acute hospital settings. The authors met with this group on a regular basis throughout the study, and received guidance on both the design of the study and the format of written materials used to recruit participants to the study.

The external oversight group for this study included, and was chaired, by carers of people living with dementia. Once data analysis was complete, the advisory group commented on our initial findings ventolin expectorant capsule price and recommendations. During and on completion of the analysis, a series of public consultation events were held with people living with dementia and family carers to ensure their involvement in discussing, informing and refining our analysis.FindingsWithin this paper, we focus on exploring the medical gaze through the embedded institutional cultures of patient clothing, and the implications this have for patients living with dementia within acute hospital wards.

These findings emerged from our wider analysis of our ethnographic study examining ward cultures of care and the experiences of people living with ventolin expectorant capsule price dementia. Here, we examine the ways in which the cultures of clothing within wards impact on the visibility of patients within it, what clothing and identity mean within the ward and the ways in which clothing can be a source of distress. We will look at how personal grooming and appearance can affect status within the ward, and finally explore the removal of clothing, and the impacts of its absence.Ward clothing culturesAcross our sites, there was variation in the cultures of patient clothing and dress.

Within many wards, it was typical for all older patients to be dressed in hospital-issued institutional gowns and pyjamas (typically in pastel blue, pink, green or peach), paired with hospital supplied socks ventolin expectorant capsule price (usually bright red, although there was some small variation) with non-slip grip soles, while in other wards, it was standard practice for people to be supported to dress in their own clothes. Across all these wards, we observed that younger patients (middle aged/working age) were more likely to be able to wear their own clothes while admitted to a ward, than older patients and those with a dementia diagnosis.Among key signifiers of social status and individuality are the material things around the person, which in these hospital wards included the accoutrements around the bedside. Significantly, it was observed that people living with dementia were more likely to be wearing an institutional hospital gown or institutional pyjamas, and to have little to individuate the person at the bedside, on either their cabinet or the mobile tray table at their bedside.

The wearing of ventolin expectorant capsule price institutional clothing was typically connected to fewer personal items on display or within reach of the patient, with any items tidied away out of sight. In contrast, younger working age patients often had many personal belongings, cards, gadgets, books, media players, with young adults also often having a range of ‘get well soon’ gifts, balloons and so on from the hospital gift shop) on display. This both afforded some elements of familiarity, but also marked the person out as someone with ventolin expectorant capsule price individuality and a certain social standing and place.Visibility of patients on a wardThe significance of the obscurity or invisibility of the patient in artworks depicting doctors has been commented on.4 Likewise, we observed that some patients within these wards were much more ‘visible’ to staff than others.

It was often apparent how the wearing of personal clothing could make the patient and their needs more readily visible to others as a person. This may be especially so given the contrast in appearance clothing may produce in this particular setting. On occasion, this may be remarked on by staff, and the resulting attention received favourably by the patient.A member of the bay team returned to a patient and found her freshly dressed in a white tee shirt, navy slacks and black velvet slippers and exclaimed aloud and appreciatively, ‘Wow, look at ventolin expectorant capsule price you!.

€™ The patient looked pleased as she sat and combed her hair [site 3 day 1].Such a simple act of recognition as someone with a socially approved appearance takes on a special significance in the context of an acute hospital ward, and for patients living with dementia whose personhood may be overlooked in various ways.46This question of visibility of patients may also be particularly important when people living with dementia may be less able to make their needs and presence known. In this example, a whole bay of patients was seemingly ‘invisible’. Here, the ethnographer is observing a four-bed bay occupied by male patients living with dementia.The man in bed 17 is sitting in ventolin expectorant capsule price his bedside chair.

He is dressed in green hospital issue pyjamas and yellow grip socks. At 10 a.m., the physiotherapy team come and ventolin expectorant capsule price see him. The physiotherapist crouches down in front of him and asks him how he is.

He says he is unhappy, and the physiotherapist explains that she’ll be back later to see him again. The nurse checks on him, asks him if he wants a pillow, and puts it behind his head explaining to ventolin expectorant capsule price him, ‘You need to sit in the chair for a bit’. She pulls his bedside trolley near to him.

With the help of a Healthcare Assistant they make the bed. The Healthcare Assistant chats ventolin expectorant capsule price to him, puts cake out for him, and puts a blanket over his legs. He is shaking slightly and I wonder if he is cold.The nurse explains to me, ‘The problem is this is a really unstimulating environment’, then says to the patient, ‘All done, let’s have a bit of a tidy up,’ before wheeling the equipment out.The neighbouring patient in bed 18, is now sitting in his bedside chair, wearing (his own) striped pyjamas.

His eyes are open, and he is ventolin expectorant capsule price looking around. After a while, he closes his eyes and dozes. The team chat to patient 19 behind the curtains.

He says he doesn’t want to sit, ventolin expectorant capsule price and they say that is fine unless the doctors tell them otherwise.The nurse puts music on an old radio with a CD player which is at the doorway near the ward entrance. It sounds like music from a musical and the ward it is quite noisy suddenly. She turns down the volume a bit, but it is very jaunty and upbeat.

The man in bed ventolin expectorant capsule price 19 quietly sings along to the songs. €˜I am going to see my baby when I go home on victory day…’At ten thirty, the nurse goes off on her break. The rest of the team are spread around the other ventolin expectorant capsule price bays and side rooms.

There are long distances between bays within this ward. After all the earlier activity it is now very calm and peaceful in the bay. Patient 20 is sitting in the chair tapping his ventolin expectorant capsule price feet to the music.

He has taken out a large hessian shopping bag out of his cabinet and is sorting through the contents. There is a lot ventolin expectorant capsule price of paperwork in it which he is reading through closely and sorting.Opposite, patient 17 looks very uncomfortable. He is sitting with two pillows behind his back but has slipped down the chair.

His head is in his hands and he suddenly looks in pain. He hasn’t ventolin expectorant capsule price touched his tea, and is talking to himself. The junior medic was aware that 17 was not comfortable, and it had looked like she was going to get some advice, but she hasn’t come back.

18 drinks his tea and looks at a wool twiddle mitt sleeve, puts it down, and dozes. 19 has finished all his coffee and manages to put the cup down on the trolley.Everyone is tapping their feet or wiggling their toes to the music, or singing quietly ventolin expectorant capsule price to it, when a student nurse, who is working at the computer station in the corridor outside the room, comes in. She has a strong purposeful stride and looks irritated as she switches the music off.

It feels like ventolin expectorant capsule price a jolt to the room. She turns and looks at me and says, ‘Sorry were you listening to it?. €™ I tell her that I think these gentlemen were listening to it.She suddenly looks very startled and surprised and looks at the men in the room for the first time.

They have all stopped tapping their toes ventolin expectorant capsule price and stopped singing along. She turns it back on but asks me if she can turn it down. She leaves and goes back to her paperwork outside.

Once it is turned ventolin expectorant capsule price back on everyone starts tapping their toes again. The music plays on. €˜There’ll be bluebirds over the white cliffs of Dover, just you wait and see…’[Site 3 day 3]The music was ventolin expectorant capsule price played by staff to help combat the drab and unstimulating environment of this hospital ward for the patients, the very people the ward is meant to serve.

Yet for this member of ward staff the music was perceived as a nuisance, the men for whom the music was playing seemingly did not register to her awareness. Only an individual of ‘higher’ status, the researcher, sitting at the end of this room was visible to her. This example illustrates the general question of the ventolin expectorant capsule price visibility or otherwise of patients.

Focusing on our immediate topic, there may be complex pathways through which clothing may impact on how patients living with dementia are perceived, and on their self-perception.Clothing and identityOn these wards, we also observed how important familiar aspects of appearance were to relatives. Family members may be distressed if they find the person they knew so well, looking markedly different. In the example below, a mother and two adult daughters ventolin expectorant capsule price visit the father of the family, who is not visible to them as the person they were so familiar with.

His is not wearing his glasses, which are missing, and his daughters find this very difficult. Even though he looks very different following his admission—he has lost a large amount of weight and has sunken cheekbones, and his skin has taken on a darker hue—it is his glasses which are a key concern for the family in their recognition of their father:As I enter the corridor to go back ventolin expectorant capsule price to the ward, I meet the wife and daughter of the patient in bed 2 in the hall and walk with them back to the ward. Their father looks very frail, his head is back, and his face is immobile, his eyes are closed, and his mouth is open.

His skin looks darker than before, and his cheekbones and eye sockets are extremely prominent from weight loss. €˜I am like a bird I want ventolin expectorant capsule price to fly away…’ plays softly in the radio in the bay. I sit with them for a bit and we chat—his wife holds his hand as we talk.

His wife has to take two busses to get to the hospital and we talk about the potential care home they expect her husband will be discharged to. They hope ventolin expectorant capsule price it will be close because she does not drive. He isn’t wearing his glasses and his daughter tells me that they can’t find them.

We look in the bedside ventolin expectorant capsule price cabinet. She has never seen her dad without his glasses. €˜He doesn’t look like my dad without his glasses’ [Site 2 day 15].It was often these small aspects of personal clothing and grooming that prompted powerful responses from visiting family members.

Missing glasses and missing teeth were notable in this regard (and with the follow-up visits from the relatives of discharged patients trying to retrieve these ventolin expectorant capsule price now lost objects). The location of these possessions, which could have a medical purpose in the case of glasses, dental prosthetics, hearing aids or accessories which contained personal and important aspects of a patient’s identity, such as wallets or keys, and particularly, for female patients, handbags, could be a prominent source of distress for individuals. These accessories to personal clothing were notable on these wards by their everyday absence, hidden away in bedside cupboards or simply not brought in with the patient at admission, and by the frequency with which patients requested and called out for them or tried to look for them, often in repetitive cycles that indicated their underlying anxiety about these belongings, but which would become invisible to staff, becoming an everyday background intrusion to the work of the wards.When considering the visibility and recognition of individual persons, missing glasses, especially glasses for distance vision, have a particular significance, for without them, a person may be less able to recognise and interact visually with others.

Their presence facilitates the subject of the gaze, in ventolin expectorant capsule price gazing back, and hence helps to ground meaningful and reciprocal relationships of recognition. This may be one factor behind the distress of relatives in finding their loved ones’ glasses to be absent.Clothing as a source of distressAcross all sites, we observed patients living with dementia who exhibited obvious distress at aspects of their institutional apparel and at the absence of their own personal clothing. Some older patients were clearly able to verbalise their understandings of the impacts of wearing institutional clothing ventolin expectorant capsule price.

One patient remarked to a nurse of her hospital blue tracksuit. €˜I look like an Olympian or Wentworth prison in this outfit!. The latter I expect…’ The staff laughed as they walked her out of the bay (site 3 day ventolin expectorant capsule price 1).Institutional clothing may be a source of distress to patients, although they may be unable to express this verbally.

Kontos has shown how people living with dementia may retain an awareness at a bodily level of the demands of etiquette.20 Likewise, in our study, a man living with dementia, wearing a very large institutional pyjama top, which had no collar and a very low V neck, continually tried to pull it up to cover his chest. The neckline was particularly low, because the pyjamas were far too large for him. He continued ventolin expectorant capsule price to fiddle with his very low-necked top even when his lunch tray was placed in front of him.

He clearly felt very uncomfortable with such clothing. He continued using his hands to try to pull it up to cover ventolin expectorant capsule price his exposed chest, during and after the meal was finished (site 3 day 5).For some patients, the communication of this distress in relation to clothing may be liable to misinterpretation and may have further impacts on how they are viewed within the ward. Here, a patient living with dementia recently admitted to this ward became tearful and upset after having a shower.

She had no fresh clothes, and so the team had provided her with a pink hospital gown to wear.‘I want my trousers, where is my bra, I’ve got no bra on.’ It is clear she doesn’t feel right without her own clothes on. The one-to-one healthcare assistant assigned to this patient tells her, ‘Your bra is dirty, do you want to ventolin expectorant capsule price wear that?. €™ She replies, ‘No I want a clean one.

Where are my trousers?. I want them, I’ve lost them.’ The healthcare assistant repeats the explaination that her clothes are dirty, and asks her, ‘Do you want your dirty ventolin expectorant capsule price ones?. €™ She is very teary ‘No, I want my clean ones.’ The carer again explains that they are dirty.The cleaner who always works in the ward arrives to clean the floor and sweeps around the patient as she sits in her chair, and as he does this, he says ‘Hello’ to her.

She is ventolin expectorant capsule price very teary and explains that she has lost her clothes. The cleaner listens sympathetically as she continues ‘I am all confused. I have lost my clothes.

I am all confused ventolin expectorant capsule price. How am I going to go to the shops with no clothes on!. €™ (site 5 day 5).This person experienced significant distress because of her absent clothes, but this would often be simply attributed to confusion, seen as a feature of her dementia.

This then may solidify staff perceptions of ventolin expectorant capsule price her condition. However, we need to consider that rather than her condition (her diagnosis of dementia) causing distress about clothing, the direction of causation may be the reverse. The absence of her own familiar ventolin expectorant capsule price clothing contributes significantly to her distress and disorientation.

Others have argued that people with limited verbal capacity and limited cognitive comprehension will have a direct appreciation of the grounding familiarity of wearing their own clothes, which give a bodily felt notion of comfort and familiarity.18 47 Familiar clothing may then be an essential prop to anchor the wearer within a recognisable social and meaningful space. To simply see clothing from a task-oriented point of view, as fulfilling a simply mechanical function, and that all clothing, whether personal or institutional have the same value and role, might be to interpret the desire to wear familiar clothing as an ‘optional extra’. However, for those patients most at risk of disorientation and distress within an unfamiliar environment, it could ventolin expectorant capsule price be a valuable necessity.Personal grooming and social statusIncluding in our consideration of clothing, we observed other aspects of the role of personal grooming.

Personal grooming was notable by its absence beyond the necessary cleaning required for reasons of immediate hygiene and clinical need (such as the prevention of pressure ulcers). Older patients, and particular those living with dementia who were unable to carry out ‘self-care’ independently and were not able to request support with personal grooming, could, over their admission, become visibly unkempt and scruffy, hair could be left unwashed, uncombed and unstyled, while men could become hirsute through a lack of shaving. The simple act of a visitor dressing and ventolin expectorant capsule price grooming a patient as they prepared for discharge could transform their appearance and leave that patient looking more alert, appear to having increased capacity, than when sitting ungroomed in their bed or bedside chair.It is important to consider the impact of appearance and of personal care in the context of an acute ward.

Kontos’ work examining life in a care home, referred to earlier, noted that people living with dementia may be acutely aware of transgressions in grooming and appearance, and noted many acts of self-care with personal appearance, such as stopping to apply lipstick, and conformity with high standards of table manners. Clothing, etiquette and personal grooming are important indicators of social class and hence an aspect of belonging and identity, and of how an individual relates to a wider ventolin expectorant capsule price group. In Kontos’ findings, these rituals and standards of appearance were also observed in negative reactions, such as expressions of disgust, towards those residents who breached these standards.

Hence, even in cases where an individual may be assessed as having considerable cognitive impairment, the importance of personal appearance must not be overlooked.For some patients within these wards, routine practices of everyday care at the bedside can increase the potential to influence whether they feel and appear socially acceptable. The delivery of routine timetabled ventolin expectorant capsule price care at the bedside can impact on people’s appearance in ways that may mark them out as failing to achieve accepted standards of embodied personhood. The task-oriented timetabling of mealtimes may have significance.

It was a typical observed feature of this routine, when a mealtime has ended, that people living with dementia were left with visible signs and features of the mealtime through spillages on faces, clothes, bed sheets and bedsides, that leave them at risk of being assessed as less socially acceptable and marked as having reduced independence. For example, a volunteer attempts to ‘feed’ a person living with dementia, when she gives up and leave the bedside (this woman living with dementia has resisted her attempts and explicitly says ‘no’), remnants of ventolin expectorant capsule price the food is left spread around her mouth (site E). In a different ward, the mealtime has ended, yet a large white plastic bib to prevent food spillages remains attached around the neck of a person living with dementia who is unable to remove it (site X).Of note, an adult would not normally wear a white plastic bib at home or in a restaurant.

It signifies a task-based apparel that is demeaning to an individual’s social status ventolin expectorant capsule price. This example also contrasts poignantly with examples from Kontos’ work,20 such as that of a female who had little or no ability to verbalise, but who nonetheless would routinely take her pearl necklace out from under her bib at mealtimes, showing she retained an acute awareness of her own appearance and the ‘right’ way to display this symbol of individuality, femininity and status. Likewise, Kontos gives the example of a resident who at mealtimes ‘placed her hand on her chest, to prevent her blouse from touching the food as she leaned over her plate’.20Patients who are less robust, who have cognitive impairments, who may be liable to disorientation and whose agency and personhood are most vulnerable are thus those for whom appropriate and familiar clothing may be most advantageous.

However, we found the ‘Matthew effect’ to be ventolin expectorant capsule price frequently in operation. To those who have the least, even that which they have will be taken away.48 Although there may be institutional and organisational rationales for putting a plastic cover over a patient, leaving it on for an extended period following a meal may act as a marker of dehumanising loss of social status. By being able to maintain familiar clothing and adornment to visually display social standing and identity, a person living with dementia may maintain a continuity of selfhood.However, it is also possible that dressing and grooming an older person may itself be a task-oriented institutional activity in certain contexts, as discussed by Lee-Treweek49 in the context of a nursing home preparing residents for ‘lounge view’ where visitors would see them, using residents to ‘create a visual product for others’ sometimes to the detriment of residents’ needs.

Our observations regarding the importance of patient appearance must therefore be considered as part of the care of the whole person and a significant feature of the ventolin expectorant capsule price institutional culture.Patient status and appearanceWithin these wards, a new grouping of class could become imposed on patients. We understand class not simply as socioeconomic class but as an indicator of the strata of local social organisation to which an individual belongs. Those in the lowest classes may have limited opportunities to participate in society, and ventolin expectorant capsule price we observed the ways in which this applied to the people living with dementia within these acute wards.

The differential impact of clothing as signifiers of social status has also been observed in a comparison of the white coat and the patient gown.4 It has been argued that while these both may help to mask individuality, they have quite different effects on social status on a ward. One might say that the white coat increases visibility as a person of standing and the attribution of agency, the patient gown diminishes both of these. (Within these ventolin expectorant capsule price wards, although white coats were not to be found, the dress code of medical staff did make them stand out.

For male doctors, for example, the uniform rarely strayed beyond chinos paired with a blue oxford button down shirt, sleeves rolled up, while women wore a wider range of smart casual office wear.) Likewise, we observed that the same arrangement of attire could be attributed to entirely different meanings for older patients with or without dementia.Removal of clothes and exposureWithin these wards, we observed high levels of behaviour perceived by ward staff as people living with dementia displaying ‘resistance’ to care.50 This included ‘resistance’ towards institutional clothing. This could include pulling up or removing hospital gowns, removing institutional pyjama trousers or pulling up gowns, and standing with gowns untied and exposed at the back (although this last example is an unavoidable design feature of the clothing itself). Importantly, the ventolin expectorant capsule price removal of clothing was limited to institutional gowns and pyjamas and we did not see any patients removing their own clothing.

This also included the removal of institutional bedding, with instances of patients pulling or kicking sheets from their bed. These acts could and was ventolin expectorant capsule price often interpreted by ward staff as a patient’s ‘resistance’ to care. There was some variation in this interpretation.

However, when an individual patient response to their institutional clothing and bedding was repeated during a shift, it was more likely to be conceived by the ward team as a form of resistance to their care, and responded to by the replacement and reinforcement of the clothing and bedding to recover the person.The removal of gowns, pyjamas and bedsheets often resulted in a patient exposing their genitalia or continence products (continence pads could be visible as a large diaper or nappy or a pad visibly held in place by transparent net pants), and as such, was disruptive to the norms and highly visible to staff and other visitor to these wards. Notably, unlike ventolin expectorant capsule price other behaviours considered by staff to be disruptive or inappropriate within these wards such as shouting or crying out, the removal of bedsheets and the subsequent bodily exposure would always be immediately corrected, the sheet replaced and the patient covered by either the nurse or HCA. The act of removal was typically interpreted by ward staff as representing a feature of the person’s dementia and staff responses were framed as an issue of patient dignity, or the dignity and embarrassment of other patients and visitors to the ward.

However, such responses to removal could lead to further cycles of removal and replacement, leading to an escalation of ventolin expectorant capsule price distress in the person. This was important, because the recording of ‘refusal of care’, or presumed ‘confusion’ associated with this, could have significant impacts on the care and discharge pathways available and prescribed for the individual patient.Consider the case of a woman living with dementia who is 90 years old (patient 1), in the example below. Despite having no immediate medical needs, she has been admitted to the MAU from a care home (following her husband’s stroke, he could no longer care for her).

Across the ventolin expectorant capsule price previous evening and morning shift, she was shouting, refusing all food and care and has received assistance from the specialist dementia care worker. However, during this shift, she has become calmer following a visit from her husband earlier in the day, has since eaten and requested drinks. Her care home would not readmit her, which meant she was not able to be discharged from the unit (an overflow unit due to a high number of admissions to the emergency department during a patch of exceptionally hot weather) until alternative arrangements could be made by social services.During our observations, she remains calm for the first 2 hours.

When she does ventolin expectorant capsule price talk, she is very loud and high pitched, but this is normal for her and not a sign of distress. For staff working on this bay, their attention is elsewhere, because of the other six patients on the unit, one is ‘on suicide watch’ and another is ‘refusing their medication’ (but does not have a diagnosis of dementia). At 15:10 ventolin expectorant capsule price patient 1 begins to remove her sheets:15:10.

The unit seems chaotic today. Patient 1 has begun to loudly drum her fingers on the tray table. She still has not been brought more milk, which she requested ventolin expectorant capsule price from the HCA an hour earlier.

The bay that patient 1 is admitted to is a temporary overflow unit and as a result staff do not know where things are. 1 has moved her sheets off her legs, her bare knees peeking out over the top of piled sheets.15:15. The nurse in charge says, ‘Hello,’ when she walks past 1’s bed ventolin expectorant capsule price.

1 looks across and smiles back at her. The nurse in charge explains to her that she needs to shuffle up the ventolin expectorant capsule price bed. 1 asks the nurse about her husband.

The nurse reminds 1 that her husband was there this morning and that he is coming back tomorrow. 1 says that he hasn’t ventolin expectorant capsule price been and she does not believe the nurse.15:25. I overhear the nurse in charge question, under her breath to herself, ‘Why 1 has been left on the unit?.

€™ 1 has started asking for somebody to come and see her. The nurse in charge tells 1 that she needs ventolin expectorant capsule price to do some jobs first and then will come and talk to her.15:30. 1 has once again kicked her sheets off of her legs.

A social ventolin expectorant capsule price worker comes onto the unit. 1 shouts, ‘Excuse me’ to her. The social worker replies, ‘Sorry I’m not staff, I don’t work here’ and leaves the bay.15:40.

1 keeps kicking sheets off ventolin expectorant capsule price her bed, otherwise the unit is quiet. She now whimpers whenever anyone passes her bed, which is whenever anyone comes through the unit’s door. 1 is the only elderly patient on the unit.

Again, the nurse in charge is heard sympathizing that this is not the right place for ventolin expectorant capsule price her.16:30. A doctor approaches 1, tells her that she is on her list of people to say hello to, she is quite friendly. 1 tells her that she has been here for 3 days, (the rest ventolin expectorant capsule price is inaudible because of pitch).

The doctor tries to cover 1 up, raising her bed sheet back over the bed, but 1 loudly refuses this. The doctor responds by ending the interaction, ‘See you later’, and leaves the unit.16:40. 1 attempts to talk to the new ventolin expectorant capsule price nurse assigned to the unit.

She goes over to 1 and says, ‘What’s up my darling?. €™ It’s hard to follow 1 now as she sounds very upset. The RN’s first instinct, like ventolin expectorant capsule price with the doctor and the nurse in charge, is to cover up 1 s legs with her bed sheet.

When 1 reacts to this she talks to her and they agree to cover up her knees. 1 is talking about how her husband ventolin expectorant capsule price won’t come and visit her, and still sounds really upset about this. [Site 3, Day 13]Of note is that between days 6 and 15 at this site, observed over a particularly warm summer, this unit was uncomfortably hot and stuffy.

The need to be uncovered could be viewed as a reasonable response, and in fact was considered acceptable for patients without a classification of dementia, provided they were otherwise clothed, such as the hospital gown patient 1 was wearing. This is an example of an aspect of care where the choice and autonomy granted to patients assessed as having (or assumed to have) cognitive capacity ventolin expectorant capsule price is not available to people who are considered to have impaired cognitive capacity (a diagnosis of dementia) and carries the additional moral judgements of the appropriateness of behaviour and bodily exposure. In the example given above, the actions were linked to the patient’s resistance to their admission to the hospital, driven by her desire to return home and to be with her husband.

Throughout observations over this 10-day period, patients perceived by staff as rational agents were allowed to strip down their bedding for comfort, whereas patients living with dementia who responded in this way were often viewed by staff as ‘undressing’, which would be interpreted as a feature of their condition, to be challenged and corrected by staff.Note how the same visual data triggered opposing interpretations of personal autonomy. Just as in the example above where distress over loss ventolin expectorant capsule price of familiar clothing may be interpreted as an aspect of confusion, yet lead to, or exacerbate, distress and disorientation. So ‘deviant’ bedding may be interpreted, for some patients only, in ways that solidify notions of lack of agency and confusion, is another example of the Matthew effect48 at work through the organisational expectations of the clothed appearance of patients.Within wards, it is not unusual to see patients, especially those with a diagnosis of dementia or cognitive impairment, walking in the corridor inadvertently in some state of undress, typically exposed from behind by their hospital gowns.

This exposure in itself is of course, an intrinsic ventolin expectorant capsule price functional feature of the design of the flimsy back-opening institutional clothing the patient has been placed in. This task-based clothing does not even fulfil this basic function very adequately. However, this inadvertent exposure could often be interpreted as an overt act of resistance to the ward and towards staff, especially when it led to exposed genitalia or continence products (pads or nappies).We speculate that the interpretation of resistance may be triggered by the visual prompt of disarrayed clothing and the meanings assumed to follow, where lack of decorum in attire is interpreted as indicating more general behavioural incompetence, cognitive impairment and/or standing outside the social order.DiscussionPrevious studies examining the significance of the visual, particularly Twigg and Buse’s work16–19 exploring the materialities of appearance, emphasise its key role in self-presentation, visibility, dignity and autonomy for older people and especially those living with dementia in care home settings.

Similarly, care home studies have demonstrated that institutional clothing, designed to facilitate task-based care, can be potentially dehumanising or and distressing.25 26 Our findings resonate with this work, but find that for people living with dementia within a key site of care, the acute ward, the impact of ventolin expectorant capsule price institutional clothing on the individual patient living with dementia, is poorly recognised, but is significant for the quality and humanity of their care.Our ethnographic approach enabled the researchers to observe the organisation and delivery of task-oriented fast-paced nature of the work of the ward and bedside care. Nonetheless, it should also be emphasised the instances in which staff such as HCAs and specialist dementia staff within these wards took time to take note of personal appearance and physical caring for patients and how important this can be for overall well-being. None of our observations should be read as critical of any individual staff, but reflects longstanding institutional cultures.Our previous work has examined how readily a person living with dementia within a hospital wards is vulnerable to dehumanisation,51 and to their behaviour within these wards being interpreted as a feature of their condition, rather than a response to the ways in which timetabled care is delivered at their bedside.50 We have also examined the ways in which visual stimuli within these wards in the form of signs and symbols indicating a diagnosis of dementia may inadvertently focus attention away from the individual patient and may incline towards simplified and inaccurate categorisation of both needs and the diagnostic category of dementia.52Our work supports the analysis of the two forms of attention arising from McGilchrist’s work.10 The institutional culture of the wards produces an organisational task-based technical attention, which we found appeared to compete with and reduce the opportunity for ward staff to seek a finer emotional attunement to the person they are caring for and their needs.

Focus on efficiency, ventolin expectorant capsule price pace and record keeping that measures individual task completion within a timetable of care may worsen all these effects. Indeed, other work has shown that in some contexts, attention to visual appearance may itself be little more than a ‘task’ to achieve.49 McGilchrist makes clear, and we agree, that both forms of attention are vital, but more needs to be done to enable staff to find a balance.Previous work has shown how important appearance is to older people, and to people living with dementia in particular, both in terms of how they are perceived by others, but also how for this group, people living with dementia, clothing and personal grooming may act as a particularly important anchor into a familiar social world. These twin aspects of clothing and appearance—self-perception and perception by others—may be especially important in the fast-paced context of an acute ward environment, ventolin expectorant capsule price where patients living with dementia may be struggling with the impacts of an additional acute medical condition within in a highly timetabled and regimented and unfamiliar environment of the ward, and where staff perceptions of them may feed into clinical assessments of their condition and subsequent treatment and discharge pathways.

We have seen above, for instance, how behaviour in relation to appearance may be seen as ‘resisting care’ in one group of patients, but as the natural expression of personal preference in patients viewed as being without cognitive impairments. Likewise, personal grooming might impact favourably on a patient’s alertness, visibility and status within the ward.Prior work has demonstrated the importance of the medical gaze for the perceptions of the patient. Other work ventolin expectorant capsule price has also shown how older people, and in particular people living with dementia, may be thought to be beyond concern for appearance, yet this does not accurately reflect the importance of appearance we found for this patient group.

Indeed, we argue that our work, along with the work of others such as Kontos,20 21 shows that if anything, visual appearance is especially important for people living with dementia particularly within clinical settings. In considering the task of washing the patient, Pols53 considered ‘dignitas’ in terms of aesthetic values, in comparison to humanitas conceived as citizen values of equality between persons. Attention to dignitas in the form of appearance may be a ventolin expectorant capsule price way of facilitating the treatment by others of a person with humanitas, and helping to realise dignity of patients.Data availability statementNo data are available.

Data are unavailable to protect anonymity.Ethics statementsPatient consent for publicationNot required.Ethics approvalEthics committee approval for the study was granted by the NHS Research Ethics Service (15/WA/0191).AcknowledgmentsThe authors acknowledge funding support from the NIHR.Notes1. Devan Stahl (2013) ventolin expectorant capsule price. €œLiving into the imagined body.

How the diagnostic image confronts the lived body.” Medical Humanities. Medhum-2012–010286.2. Joyce Zazulak et al.

(2017). "The art of medicine. Arts-based training in observation and mindfulness for fostering the empathic response in medical residents.” Medical Humanities.

Medhum-2016-011180.3. E Forde (2018). "Using photography to enhance GP trainees’ reflective practice and professional development." Medical Humanities.

Medhum-2017-011203.4. Caroline Wellbery and Melissa Chan (2014) “White coat, patient gown.” Medical Humanities. Medhum-2013–0 10 463.5.

E Goffman (1990a). Stigma. Notes on the management of spoiled identity, Penguin.6.

J Bridges and C Wilkinson (2011). €œAchieving dignity for older people with dementia in hospital.” Nursing Standard 5 (29).7. J Dancy (1985).

Contemporary Epistemology, John Wiley and Sons.8. D McNaughton (1988). Moral Vision.

Blackwell.9. S Weil (1953). Gravity and Grace.

U of Nebraska Press.10. I McGilchrist (2009). The Master and his Emissary.

The divided brain and the making of the western world. New Haven and London, Yale University Press.11. Iain McGilchrist (2011).

€œPaying attention to the bipartite brain.” The Lancet 377 (9771). 1068–1069.12. Efrat Tseëlon (1992).

€œSelf presentation through appearance. A manipulative vs a dramaturgical approach”. Symbolic Interaction, 15(4).

501–514.13. E Tseëlon (1995). The masque of femininity.

The presentation of woman in everyday life. London. Sage.14.

E Goffman (1990b). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Penguin15. Efrat Tseëlon (2001).

€œFashion research and its discontents”. Fashion Theory, 5 (4). 435–451.16.

Julia Twigg (2010a). €œClothing and dementia. A neglected dimension?.

€ Journal of Ageing Studies 24(4). 223–230.17. Julia Twigg and Christina E Buse (2013).

€œDress, dementia and the embodiment of identity.” Dementia 12(3). 326–336.18. C.

E Buse and J. Twigg (2015). €œClothing, embodied identity and dementia.

Maintaining the self through dress.” Age, Culture, Humanities (2).19. Christina Buse and Julia Twigg (2018). €œDressing disrupted.

Negotiating care through the materiality of dress in the context of dementia.” Sociology of Health &. Illness, 40(2). 340-352.20.

PIA C Kontos (2004). Ethnographic reflections on selfhood, embodiment and Alzheimer's disease. Ageing &.

C Kontos (2005). €œEmbodied selfhood in Alzheimer's disease. Rethinking person-centred care.” Dementia 4 (4).

Naglie (2007). €œBridging theory and practice. Imagination, the body, and person-centred dementia care.” Dementia 6 (4).

549–569.23. Richard Ward et al. (2016a).

€œâ€˜Gonna make yer gorgeous’. Everyday transformation, resistance and belonging in the care-based hair salon.” Dementia, 15(3). 395–413.24.

Richard Ward, Sarah Campbell, and John Keady (2016b). €œAssembling the salon. Learning from alternative forms of body work in dementia care.” Sociology of Health &.

Illness, 38(8). 1287–1302.25. Sonja Iltanen-Tähkävuori, Minttu Wikberg, and Päivi Topo (2012).

Design and dementia. A case of garments designed to prevent undressing. Dementia, 11(1).

49–59.26. Päivi Topo and Sonja Iltanen-Tähkävuori (2010). €œScripting patienthood with patient clothing.” Social Science &.

Medicine, 70(11). 1682–1689.27. Julia Twigg (2010b).

€œWelfare embodied. The materiality of hospital dress. A commentary on Topo and Iltanen-Tähkävuori”.

Social Science and Medicine, 70(11), 1690–1692.28. Kathleen Woodward (2006). €œPerforming age, performing gender” National Women’s Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 18(1).

162–89.29. K.M Woodward (1999). Introduction.

In K.M. Woodward (ed.), Figuring Age. Women, Bodies and Generations (pp.

Ix-xxix). Bloomington. Indiana University Press.30.

M Hammersley and P Atkinson (1989). Ethnography. Principles in practice.

J Caracelli (2006). Enhancing the policy process through the use of ethnography and other study frameworks. A mixed-method strategy.

Research in the Schools, 13(1). 84–92.32. W Housley and P Atkinson (2003).

Interactionism, Sage33. M Hammersley (1987) What's Wrong with Ethnography?. Methodological Explorations.

London. Routledge34. V Turner and E Bruner (1986).

The Anthropology of Experience New York. PAJ Publications. 2435.

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Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 24(25). 288–30437. Juliet M.

Corbin and Anselm Strauss (1990). Grounded theoryrResearch. Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria.

Grounded theory and the constant comparative method. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 316 (7137),:1064.39. Roy Suddaby (2006).

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Prospective cohort study of prevalence and mortality”. British Journal of Psychiatry,195(1). 61–66.

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Sage Publications, Inc.46. Paula Boddington and Katie Featherstone (2018). €œThe canary in the coal mine.

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Dignity and aesthetic values in nursing care” Nursing Philosophy, 14(3). 186–200.

AbstractBrazil is currently home to the largest Japanese population outside of can i get ventolin over the counter uk Japan. In Brazil today, Japanese-Brazilians are considered to be successful members of Brazilian society. This was not always the case, however, and Japanese immigrants to Brazil can i get ventolin over the counter uk endured much hardship to attain their current level of prestige.

This essay explores this community’s trajectory towards the formation of the Japanese-Brazilian identity and the issues of mental health that arise in this immigrant community. Through the analysis of Japanese-Brazilian novels, TV shows, film and public health studies, I seek to disentangle the themes of gender and modernisation, and how these themes concurrently grapple with Japanese-Brazilian mental health issues. These fictional narratives provide a lens into the experience of the Japanese-Brazilian community that is unavailable in traditional medical studies about their mental health.filmliterature and medicinemental health caregender studiesmedical humanitiesData availability statementData are available in a public, open access repository.Introduction and philosophical backgroundWork in the medical humanities has noted can i get ventolin over the counter uk the importance of the ‘medical gaze’ and how it may ‘see’ the patient in ways which are specific, while possessing broad significance, in relation to developing medical knowledge.

To diagnosis. And to the social position of the medical profession.1 Some authors have emphasised that vision is a distinctive modality of perception which merits its own consideration, and which may have a particular role can i get ventolin over the counter uk to play in medical education and understanding.2 3 The clothing we wear has a strong impact on how we are perceived. For example, commentary in this journal on the ‘white coat’ observes that while it may rob the medical doctor of individuality, it nonetheless grants an elevated status4.

In contrast, the patient hospital gown may rob patients of individuality in a way that stigmatises them,5 reducing their status in the ward, and ultimately dehumanises them, in conflict with the humanistic approaches seen as central to the best practice in the care of older patients, and particularly those living with dementia.6The broad context of our concern is the visibility of patients and their needs. We draw on observations made during an ethnographic study of the everyday care of people living with dementia within acute hospital wards, to consider how patients’ clothing may impact on the way they can i get ventolin over the counter uk were perceived by themselves and by others. Hence, we draw on this ethnography to contribute to discussion of the ‘medical gaze’ in a specific and informative context.The acute setting illustrates a situation in which there are great many biomedical, technical, recording, and timetabled routine task-oriented demands, organised and delivered by different staff members, together with demands for care and attention to particular individuals and an awareness of their needs.

Within this ward setting, we focus on patients who are living with dementia, since this group may be particularly vulnerable to a dehumanising gaze.6 We frame our discussion within the broader context of the general philosophical question of how we acquire knowledge of different types, and the moral consequences of this, particularly knowledge through visual perception.Debates throughout the history of philosophy raise questions about the nature and sources of our knowledge. Contrasts are can i get ventolin over the counter uk often drawn between more reliable or less reliable knowledge. And between knowledge that is more technical or ‘objective’, and knowledge that is more emotionally based or more ‘subjective’.

A frequent point of discussion is the reliability and characteristics of perception as a source of can i get ventolin over the counter uk knowledge. This epistemological discussion is mostly focused on vision, indicating its particular importance as a mode of perception to humans.7Likewise, in ethics, there is discussion of the origin of our moral knowledge and the particular role of perception.8 There is frequent recognition that the observer has some significant role in acquiring moral knowledge. Attention to qualities of the moral observer is not in itself a denial of moral reality.

Indeed, it is the very essence of an ethical response to the world to recognise the deep reality of others as separate persons can i get ventolin over the counter uk. The nature of ethical attention to the world and to those around us is debated and has been articulated in various ways. The quality of ethical attention may vary and achieving a high level of ethical attention may require certain conditions, certain virtues, and the time and mental space to attend to the situation and claims of the other.9Consideration has already been given to how different modes of attention to the world might be of relevance to the practice of medicine.

Work that examines different ways of processing can i get ventolin over the counter uk information, and of interacting with and being in the world, can be found in Iain McGilchrist’s The Master and His Emissary,10 where he draws on neurological discoveries and applies his ideas to the development of human culture. McGilchrist has recently expanded on the relevance of understanding two different approaches to knowledge for the practice of medicine.11 He argues that task-oriented perception, and a wider, more emotionally attuned awareness of the environment are necessary partners, but may in some circumstances compete, with the competitive edge often being given to the narrower, task-based attention.There has been critique of McGilchrist’s arguments as well as much support. We find his work a useful framework for understanding important debates in the ethics of medicine and of nursing about can i get ventolin over the counter uk relationships of staff to patients.

In particular, it helps to illuminate the consequences of patients’ dress and personal appearance for how they are seen and treated.Dementia and personal appearanceOur work focuses on patients living with dementia admitted to acute hospital wards. Here, they are a large group, present alongside older patients unaffected by dementia, as well as younger patients. This mixed can i get ventolin over the counter uk population provides a useful setting to consider the impact of personal appearance on different patient groups.The role of appearance in the presentation of the self has been explored extensively by Tseëlon,12 13 drawing on Goffman’s work on stigma5 and the presentation of the self14 using interactionist approaches.

Drawing on the experiences on women in the UK, Tseëlon argues Goffman’s interactionist approach best supports how we understand the relationship appearance plays in self presentation, and its relationships with other signs and interactions surrounding it. Tseëlon suggests that understandings in this area, in the role appearance and clothing have in the presentation of the self, have been restricted by the perceived trivialities of the topic and limited to the field of fashion studies.15The personal appearance of older patients, and patients living with dementia in particular, has, more recently, been shown to be worthy of attention and of particular significance. Older people are often assumed to be left out of fashion, yet a concern with appearance remains.16 17 Lack of attention to clothing and to personal care may be one sign of can i get ventolin over the counter uk the varied symptoms associated with cognitive impairment or dementia, and so conversely, attention to appearance is one way of combatting the stigma associated with dementia.

Families and carers may also feel the importance of personal appearance. The significant body of work by Twigg and Buse in this field in particular draws attention to the role clothing has on preserving the identity and dignity or people living with dementia, while also constraining and enabling elements of care within long-term community settings.16–19 Within this paper, we examine the ways in which these phenomena can i get ventolin over the counter uk can be even more acutely felt within the impersonal setting of the acute hospital.Work has also shown how people living with dementia strongly retain a felt, bodily appreciation for the importance of personal appearance. The comfort and sensuous feel of familiar clothing may remain, even after cognitive capacities such as the ability to recognise oneself in a mirror, or verbal fluency, are lost.18 More strongly still, Kontos,20–22 drawing on the work of Merleau-Ponty and of Bourdieu, has convincingly argued that this attention to clothing and personal appearance is an important aspect of the maintenance of a bodily sense of self, which is also socially mediated, in part via such attention to appearance.

Our observations lend support to Kontos’ hypothesis.Much of this previous work has considered clothing in the everyday life of people living with dementia in the context of community or long-term residential care.18 Here, we look at the visual impact of clothing and appearance in the different setting of the hospital ward and consider the consequent implications for patient care. This setting enables us to consider how the short-term and unfamiliar environments of the acute ward, together with the contrast between personal and institutional attire, impact on the perception of the patient by self and by others.There is a body of literature that examines the work of restoring the appearance can i get ventolin over the counter uk of residents within long-term community care settings, for instance Ward et al’s work that demonstrates the importance of hair and grooming as a key component of care.23 24 The work of Iltanen-Tähkävuori25 examines the usage of garments designed for long-term care settings, exploring the conflict between clothing used to prevent undressing or facilitate the delivery of care, and the distress such clothing can cause, being powerfully symbolic of lower social status and associated with reduced autonomy.26 27Within this literature, there has also been a significant focus on the role of clothing, appearance and the tasks of personal care surrounding it, on the older female body. A corpus of feminist literature has examined the ageing process and the use of clothing to conceal ageing, the presentation of a younger self, or a ‘certain’ age28 It argues that once the ability to conceal the ageing process through clothing and grooming has been lost, the aged person must instead conceal themselves, dressing to hide themselves and becoming invisible in the process.29 This paper will explore how institutional clothing within hospital wards affects both the male and female body, the presentation of the ageing body and its role in reinforcing the invisibility of older people, at a time when they are paradoxically most visible, unclothed and undressed, or wearing institutional clothing within the hospital ward.Institutional clothing is designed and used to fulfil a practical function.

Its use may therefore perhaps incline us towards a ‘task-based’ mode of attention, which as McGilchrist argues,10 while having a vital place in our understanding of the world, may on occasion interfere with the forms of attention that may be needed to deliver good person-oriented care responsive to individual needs.MethodsEthnography involves the in-depth study of people’s actions and accounts within their natural everyday setting, collecting relatively unstructured data from a range of sources.30 Importantly, it can take into account the perspectives of patients, carers and hospital staff.31 Our approach to ethnography is informed by the symbolic interactionist research tradition, which aims to provide an interpretive understanding of the social world, with an emphasis on interaction, focusing on understanding how action and meaning are constructed within a setting.32 The value of this approach is the depth of understanding and theory generation it can provide.33The goal of ethnography is to identify social processes within the data. There are multiple complex and nuanced interactions within these clinical settings that are capable of ‘communicating many messages at once, even of subverting on one level what it can i get ventolin over the counter uk appears to be “saying” on another’.34 Thus, it is important to observe interaction and performance. How everyday care work is organised and delivered.

By obtaining observational data from within each institution on the everyday can i get ventolin over the counter uk work of hospital wards, their family carers and the nursing and healthcare assistants (HCAs) who carry out this work, we can explore the ways in which hospital organisation, procedures and everyday care impact on care during a hospital admission. It remedies a common weakness in many qualitative studies, that what people say in interviews may differ from what they do or their private justifications to others.35Data collection (observations and interviews) and analysis were informed by the analytic tradition of grounded theory.36 There was no prior hypothesis testing and we used the constant comparative method and theoretical sampling whereby data collection (observation and interview data) and analysis are inter-related,36 37 and are carried out concurrently.38 39 The flexible nature of this approach is important, because it can allow us to increase the ‘analytic incisiveness’35 of the study. Preliminary analysis of data collected from individual sites informed the focus of later stages of sampling, data collection and analysis in other sites.Thus, sampling requires a flexible, pragmatic approach and purposive and maximum variation sampling (theoretical sampling) was used.

This included can i get ventolin over the counter uk five hospitals selected to represent a range of hospitals types, geographies and socioeconomic catchments. Five hospitals were purposefully selected to represent a range of hospitals types. Two large university teaching hospitals, two medium-sized general hospitals and one smaller general hospital.

This included one urban, two inner city and two hospitals covering a mix of rural and suburban catchment areas, all situated within England and Wales.These sites represented a range of expertise and interventions in caring for people with dementia, from no formal expertise can i get ventolin over the counter uk to the deployment of specialist dementia workers. Fractures, nutritional disorders, urinary tract and pneumonia40 41 are among the principal causes of admission to acute hospital settings among people with dementia. Thus, we can i get ventolin over the counter uk focused observation within trauma and orthopaedic wards (80 days) and medical assessment units (MAU.

75 days).Across these sites, 155 days of observational fieldwork were carried out. At each of the five sites, a minimum of 30 days observation took place, split between the two ward types. Observations were carried out by two researchers, each working in clusters of 2–4 days over a 6-week period at each can i get ventolin over the counter uk site.

A single day of observation could last a minimum of 2 hours and a maximum of 12 hours. A total of 684 hours of observation were conducted for this study. This produced approximately 600 000 words of can i get ventolin over the counter uk observational fieldnotes that were transcribed, cleaned and anonymised (by KF and AN).

We also carried out ethnographic (during observation) interviews with trauma and orthopaedic ward (192 ethnographic interviews and 22 group interviews) and MAU (222 ethnographic interviews) staff (including nurses, HCAs, auxiliary and support staff and medical teams) as they cared for this patient group. This allowed us to question what they are doing and why, and what are the caring practices of ward staff when interacting with people living with dementia.Patients within these settings with a diagnosis of dementia were identified through can i get ventolin over the counter uk ward nursing handover notes, patient records and board data with the assistance of ward staff. Following the provision of written and verbal information about the study, and the expression of willingness to take part, written consent was taken from patients, staff and visitors directly observed or spoken to as part of the study.To optimise the generalisability of our findings,42 our approach emphasises the importance of comparisons across sites,43 with theoretical saturation achieved following the search for negative cases, and on exploring a diverse and wide range of data.

When no additional empirical data were found, we concluded that the analytical categories were saturated.36 44Grounded theory and ethnography are complementary traditions, with grounded theory strengthening the ethnographic aims of achieving a theoretical interpretation of the data, while the ethnographic approach prevents a rigid application of grounded theory.35 Using an ethnographic approach can mean that everything within a setting is treated as data, which can lead to large volumes of unconnected data and a descriptive analysis.45 This approach provides a middle ground in which the ethnographer, often seen as a passive observer of the social world, uses grounded theory to provide a systematic approach to data collection and analysis that can be used to develop theory to address the interpretive realities of participants within this setting.35Patient and public involvementThe data presented in this paper are drawn from a wider ethnographic study supported by an advisory group of people living with dementia and their family carers. It was this advisory group that informed us of the need of a better understanding of can i get ventolin over the counter uk the impacts of the everyday care received by people living with dementia in acute hospital settings. The authors met with this group on a regular basis throughout the study, and received guidance on both the design of the study and the format of written materials used to recruit participants to the study.

The external oversight group for this study included, and was chaired, by carers of people living with dementia. Once data analysis was complete, the can i get ventolin over the counter uk advisory group commented on our initial findings and recommendations. During and on completion of the analysis, a series of public consultation events were held with people living with dementia and family carers to ensure their involvement in discussing, informing and refining our analysis.FindingsWithin this paper, we focus on exploring the medical gaze through the embedded institutional cultures of patient clothing, and the implications this have for patients living with dementia within acute hospital wards.

These findings emerged from our wider analysis of our ethnographic study examining ward cultures of care and the experiences of people living can i get ventolin over the counter uk with dementia. Here, we examine the ways in which the cultures of clothing within wards impact on the visibility of patients within it, what clothing and identity mean within the ward and the ways in which clothing can be a source of distress. We will look at how personal grooming and appearance can affect status within the ward, and finally explore the removal of clothing, and the impacts of its absence.Ward clothing culturesAcross our sites, there was variation in the cultures of patient clothing and dress.

Within many wards, it was typical for all older patients to be dressed in hospital-issued institutional gowns and pyjamas (typically in pastel blue, pink, green or peach), paired with hospital supplied socks (usually can i get ventolin over the counter uk bright red, although there was some small variation) with non-slip grip soles, while in other wards, it was standard practice for people to be supported to dress in their own clothes. Across all these wards, we observed that younger patients (middle aged/working age) were more likely to be able to wear their own clothes while admitted to a ward, than older patients and those with a dementia diagnosis.Among key signifiers of social status and individuality are the material things around the person, which in these hospital wards included the accoutrements around the bedside. Significantly, it was observed that people living with dementia were more likely to be wearing an institutional hospital gown or institutional pyjamas, and to have little to individuate the person at the bedside, on either their cabinet or the mobile tray table at their bedside.

The wearing of institutional clothing was typically connected to fewer personal items on display or within reach of the patient, with any items tidied can i get ventolin over the counter uk away out of sight. In contrast, younger working age patients often had many personal belongings, cards, gadgets, books, media players, with young adults also often having a range of ‘get well soon’ gifts, balloons and so on from the hospital gift shop) on display. This both afforded some elements of familiarity, but also marked the person out as someone with individuality and a certain social standing and place.Visibility of patients on a wardThe significance can i get ventolin over the counter uk of the obscurity or invisibility of the patient in artworks depicting doctors has been commented on.4 Likewise, we observed that some patients within these wards were much more ‘visible’ to staff than others.

It was often apparent how the wearing of personal clothing could make the patient and their needs more readily visible to others as a person. This may be especially so given the contrast in appearance clothing may produce in this particular setting. On occasion, this may be remarked on by staff, and the resulting attention received favourably by the patient.A member of the bay team returned to a patient and found her freshly dressed in a white tee can i get ventolin over the counter uk shirt, navy slacks and black velvet slippers and exclaimed aloud and appreciatively, ‘Wow, look at you!.

€™ The patient looked pleased as she sat and combed her hair [site 3 day 1].Such a simple act of recognition as someone with a socially approved appearance takes on a special significance in the context of an acute hospital ward, and for patients living with dementia whose personhood may be overlooked in various ways.46This question of visibility of patients may also be particularly important when people living with dementia may be less able to make their needs and presence known. In this example, a whole bay of patients was seemingly ‘invisible’. Here, the can i get ventolin over the counter uk ethnographer is observing a four-bed bay occupied by male patients living with dementia.The man in bed 17 is sitting in his bedside chair.

He is dressed in green hospital issue pyjamas and yellow grip socks. At 10 a.m., the physiotherapy team come and see him can i get ventolin over the counter uk. The physiotherapist crouches down in front of him and asks him how he is.

He says he is unhappy, and the physiotherapist explains that she’ll be back later to see him again. The nurse checks on him, can i get ventolin over the counter uk asks him if he wants a pillow, and puts it behind his head explaining to him, ‘You need to sit in the chair for a bit’. She pulls his bedside trolley near to him.

With the help of a Healthcare Assistant they make the bed. The Healthcare Assistant chats to him, puts cake out for can i get ventolin over the counter uk him, and puts a blanket over his legs. He is shaking slightly and I wonder if he is cold.The nurse explains to me, ‘The problem is this is a really unstimulating environment’, then says to the patient, ‘All done, let’s have a bit of a tidy up,’ before wheeling the equipment out.The neighbouring patient in bed 18, is now sitting in his bedside chair, wearing (his own) striped pyjamas.

His eyes are open, and he is looking can i get ventolin over the counter uk around. After a while, he closes his eyes and dozes. The team chat to patient 19 behind the curtains.

He says he doesn’t want to sit, and they say that is fine unless the doctors tell them otherwise.The nurse puts music on an old radio with a can i get ventolin over the counter uk CD player which is at the doorway near the ward entrance. It sounds like music from a musical and the ward it is quite noisy suddenly. She turns down the volume a bit, but it is very jaunty and upbeat.

The man in bed 19 quietly sings along to can i get ventolin over the counter uk the songs. €˜I am going to see my baby when I go home on victory day…’At ten thirty, the nurse goes off on her break. The rest can i get ventolin over the counter uk of the team are spread around the other bays and side rooms.

There are long distances between bays within this ward. After all the earlier activity it is now very calm and peaceful in the bay. Patient 20 is sitting in the chair tapping his feet to the music can i get ventolin over the counter uk.

He has taken out a large hessian shopping bag out of his cabinet and is sorting through the contents. There is a lot of paperwork in it which he is can i get ventolin over the counter uk reading through closely and sorting.Opposite, patient 17 looks very uncomfortable. He is sitting with two pillows behind his back but has slipped down the chair.

His head is in his hands and he suddenly looks in pain. He hasn’t can i get ventolin over the counter uk touched his tea, and is talking to himself. The junior medic was aware that 17 was not comfortable, and it had looked like she was going to get some advice, but she hasn’t come back.

18 drinks his tea and looks at a wool twiddle mitt sleeve, puts it down, and dozes. 19 has finished all his coffee and manages to put the cup down on the trolley.Everyone is tapping their feet or wiggling their toes to the music, or singing quietly to it, when can i get ventolin over the counter uk a student nurse, who is working at the computer station in the corridor outside the room, comes in. She has a strong purposeful stride and looks irritated as she switches the music off.

It feels like can i get ventolin over the counter uk a jolt to the room. She turns and looks at me and says, ‘Sorry were you listening to it?. €™ I tell her that I think these gentlemen were listening to it.She suddenly looks very startled and surprised and looks at the men in the room for the first time.

They have all stopped tapping their can i get ventolin over the counter uk toes and stopped singing along. She turns it back on but asks me if she can turn it down. She leaves and goes back to her paperwork outside.

Once it is turned can i get ventolin over the counter uk back on everyone starts tapping their toes again. The music plays on. €˜There’ll be bluebirds over the white cliffs of Dover, just you wait and see…’[Site 3 day 3]The can i get ventolin over the counter uk music was played by staff to help combat the drab and unstimulating environment of this hospital ward for the patients, the very people the ward is meant to serve.

Yet for this member of ward staff the music was perceived as a nuisance, the men for whom the music was playing seemingly did not register to her awareness. Only an individual of ‘higher’ status, the researcher, sitting at the end of this room was visible to her. This example can i get ventolin over the counter uk illustrates the general question of the visibility or otherwise of patients.

Focusing on our immediate topic, there may be complex pathways through which clothing may impact on how patients living with dementia are perceived, and on their self-perception.Clothing and identityOn these wards, we also observed how important familiar aspects of appearance were to relatives. Family members may be distressed if they find the person they knew so well, looking markedly different. In the example below, a mother and two adult daughters visit the father of the family, who is not visible to them as the can i get ventolin over the counter uk person they were so familiar with.

His is not wearing his glasses, which are missing, and his daughters find this very difficult. Even though he looks very different following his admission—he has lost a large amount of weight and has sunken cheekbones, and his can i get ventolin over the counter uk skin has taken on a darker hue—it is his glasses which are a key concern for the family in their recognition of their father:As I enter the corridor to go back to the ward, I meet the wife and daughter of the patient in bed 2 in the hall and walk with them back to the ward. Their father looks very frail, his head is back, and his face is immobile, his eyes are closed, and his mouth is open.

His skin looks darker than before, and his cheekbones and eye sockets are extremely prominent from weight loss. €˜I am like can i get ventolin over the counter uk a bird I want to fly away…’ plays softly in the radio in the bay. I sit with them for a bit and we chat—his wife holds his hand as we talk.

His wife has to take two busses to get to the hospital and we talk about the potential care home they expect her husband will be discharged to. They hope it will be close can i get ventolin over the counter uk because she does not drive. He isn’t wearing his glasses and his daughter tells me that they can’t find them.

We look in can i get ventolin over the counter uk the bedside cabinet. She has never seen her dad without his glasses. €˜He doesn’t look like my dad without his glasses’ [Site 2 day 15].It was often these small aspects of personal clothing and grooming that prompted powerful responses from visiting family members.

Missing glasses and missing teeth were notable in this regard can i get ventolin over the counter uk (and with the follow-up visits from the relatives of discharged patients trying to retrieve these now lost objects). The location of these possessions, which could have a medical purpose in the case of glasses, dental prosthetics, hearing aids or accessories which contained personal and important aspects of a patient’s identity, such as wallets or keys, and particularly, for female patients, handbags, could be a prominent source of distress for individuals. These accessories to personal clothing were notable on these wards by their everyday absence, hidden away in bedside cupboards or simply not brought in with the patient at admission, and by the frequency with which patients requested and called out for them or tried to look for them, often in repetitive cycles that indicated their underlying anxiety about these belongings, but which would become invisible to staff, becoming an everyday background intrusion to the work of the wards.When considering the visibility and recognition of individual persons, missing glasses, especially glasses for distance vision, have a particular significance, for without them, a person may be less able to recognise and interact visually with others.

Their presence facilitates the subject of the gaze, in gazing back, can i get ventolin over the counter uk and hence helps to ground meaningful and reciprocal relationships of recognition. This may be one factor behind the distress of relatives in finding their loved ones’ glasses to be absent.Clothing as a source of distressAcross all sites, we observed patients living with dementia who exhibited obvious distress at aspects of their institutional apparel and at the absence of their own personal clothing. Some older patients were clearly able to verbalise their can i get ventolin over the counter uk understandings of the impacts of wearing institutional clothing.

One patient remarked to a nurse of her hospital blue tracksuit. €˜I look like an Olympian or Wentworth prison in this outfit!. The latter I expect…’ The staff laughed as they walked her out of the bay (site 3 day 1).Institutional clothing may be a can i get ventolin over the counter uk source of distress to patients, although they may be unable to express this verbally.

Kontos has shown how people living with dementia may retain an awareness at a bodily level of the demands of etiquette.20 Likewise, in our study, a man living with dementia, wearing a very large institutional pyjama top, which had no collar and a very low V neck, continually tried to pull it up to cover his chest. The neckline was particularly low, because the pyjamas were far too large for him. He continued can i get ventolin over the counter uk to fiddle with his very low-necked top even when his lunch tray was placed in front of him.

He clearly felt very uncomfortable with such clothing. He continued using his hands to try to pull can i get ventolin over the counter uk it up to cover his exposed chest, during and after the meal was finished (site 3 day 5).For some patients, the communication of this distress in relation to clothing may be liable to misinterpretation and may have further impacts on how they are viewed within the ward. Here, a patient living with dementia recently admitted to this ward became tearful and upset after having a shower.

She had no fresh clothes, and so the team had provided her with a pink hospital gown to wear.‘I want my trousers, where is my bra, I’ve got no bra on.’ It is clear she doesn’t feel right without her own clothes on. The one-to-one healthcare assistant assigned to this patient tells her, ‘Your bra is dirty, do you want to wear that? can i get ventolin over the counter uk. €™ She replies, ‘No I want a clean one.

Where are my trousers?. I want them, I’ve lost them.’ The healthcare assistant repeats the explaination that her clothes are dirty, and can i get ventolin over the counter uk asks her, ‘Do you want your dirty ones?. €™ She is very teary ‘No, I want my clean ones.’ The carer again explains that they are dirty.The cleaner who always works in the ward arrives to clean the floor and sweeps around the patient as she sits in her chair, and as he does this, he says ‘Hello’ to her.

She is can i get ventolin over the counter uk very teary and explains that she has lost her clothes. The cleaner listens sympathetically as she continues ‘I am all confused. I have lost my clothes.

I am can i get ventolin over the counter uk all confused. How am I going to go to the shops with no clothes on!. €™ (site 5 day 5).This person experienced significant distress because of her absent clothes, but this would often be simply attributed to confusion, seen as a feature of her dementia.

This then may solidify staff perceptions of her condition can i get ventolin over the counter uk. However, we need to consider that rather than her condition (her diagnosis of dementia) causing distress about clothing, the direction of causation may be the reverse. The absence can i get ventolin over the counter uk of her own familiar clothing contributes significantly to her distress and disorientation.

Others have argued that people with limited verbal capacity and limited cognitive comprehension will have a direct appreciation of the grounding familiarity of wearing their own clothes, which give a bodily felt notion of comfort and familiarity.18 47 Familiar clothing may then be an essential prop to anchor the wearer within a recognisable social and meaningful space. To simply see clothing from a task-oriented point of view, as fulfilling a simply mechanical function, and that all clothing, whether personal or institutional have the same value and role, might be to interpret the desire to wear familiar clothing as an ‘optional extra’. However, for those patients most at risk of disorientation and distress can i get ventolin over the counter uk within an unfamiliar environment, it could be a valuable necessity.Personal grooming and social statusIncluding in our consideration of clothing, we observed other aspects of the role of personal grooming.

Personal grooming was notable by its absence beyond the necessary cleaning required for reasons of immediate hygiene and clinical need (such as the prevention of pressure ulcers). Older patients, and particular those living with dementia who were unable to carry out ‘self-care’ independently and were not able to request support with personal grooming, could, over their admission, become visibly unkempt and scruffy, hair could be left unwashed, uncombed and unstyled, while men could become hirsute through a lack of shaving. The simple act of a visitor dressing and grooming a patient as they prepared for discharge could transform their appearance and leave that patient looking more alert, appear to having increased capacity, than when sitting can i get ventolin over the counter uk ungroomed in their bed or bedside chair.It is important to consider the impact of appearance and of personal care in the context of an acute ward.

Kontos’ work examining life in a care home, referred to earlier, noted that people living with dementia may be acutely aware of transgressions in grooming and appearance, and noted many acts of self-care with personal appearance, such as stopping to apply lipstick, and conformity with high standards of table manners. Clothing, etiquette can i get ventolin over the counter uk and personal grooming are important indicators of social class and hence an aspect of belonging and identity, and of how an individual relates to a wider group. In Kontos’ findings, these rituals and standards of appearance were also observed in negative reactions, such as expressions of disgust, towards those residents who breached these standards.

Hence, even in cases where an individual may be assessed as having considerable cognitive impairment, the importance of personal appearance must not be overlooked.For some patients within these wards, routine practices of everyday care at the bedside can increase the potential to influence whether they feel and appear socially acceptable. The delivery of routine timetabled care at the bedside can impact on people’s appearance in ways that can i get ventolin over the counter uk may mark them out as failing to achieve accepted standards of embodied personhood. The task-oriented timetabling of mealtimes may have significance.

It was a typical observed feature of this routine, when a mealtime has ended, that people living with dementia were left with visible signs and features of the mealtime through spillages on faces, clothes, bed sheets and bedsides, that leave them at risk of being assessed as less socially acceptable and marked as having reduced independence. For example, a volunteer attempts to ‘feed’ a person living with dementia, when she gives up and leave the bedside (this woman living with dementia can i get ventolin over the counter uk has resisted her attempts and explicitly says ‘no’), remnants of the food is left spread around her mouth (site E). In a different ward, the mealtime has ended, yet a large white plastic bib to prevent food spillages remains attached around the neck of a person living with dementia who is unable to remove it (site X).Of note, an adult would not normally wear a white plastic bib at home or in a restaurant.

It signifies a can i get ventolin over the counter uk task-based apparel that is demeaning to an individual’s social status. This example also contrasts poignantly with examples from Kontos’ work,20 such as that of a female who had little or no ability to verbalise, but who nonetheless would routinely take her pearl necklace out from under her bib at mealtimes, showing she retained an acute awareness of her own appearance and the ‘right’ way to display this symbol of individuality, femininity and status. Likewise, Kontos gives the example of a resident who at mealtimes ‘placed her hand on her chest, to prevent her blouse from touching the food as she leaned over her plate’.20Patients who are less robust, who have cognitive impairments, who may be liable to disorientation and whose agency and personhood are most vulnerable are thus those for whom appropriate and familiar clothing may be most advantageous.

However, we found the ‘Matthew effect’ to be frequently in operation can i get ventolin over the counter uk. To those who have the least, even that which they have will be taken away.48 Although there may be institutional and organisational rationales for putting a plastic cover over a patient, leaving it on for an extended period following a meal may act as a marker of dehumanising loss of social status. By being able to maintain familiar clothing and adornment to visually display social standing and identity, a person living with dementia may maintain a continuity of selfhood.However, it is also possible that dressing and grooming an older person may itself be a task-oriented institutional activity in certain contexts, as discussed by Lee-Treweek49 in the context of a nursing home preparing residents for ‘lounge view’ where visitors would see them, using residents to ‘create a visual product for others’ sometimes to the detriment of residents’ needs.

Our observations regarding the importance of patient appearance must therefore be considered as part of the care of the whole person and a significant feature of the institutional culture.Patient status and appearanceWithin these wards, a new can i get ventolin over the counter uk grouping of class could become imposed on patients. We understand class not simply as socioeconomic class but as an indicator of the strata of local social organisation to which an individual belongs. Those in the lowest classes may have can i get ventolin over the counter uk limited opportunities to participate in society, and we observed the ways in which this applied to the people living with dementia within these acute wards.

The differential impact of clothing as signifiers of social status has also been observed in a comparison of the white coat and the patient gown.4 It has been argued that while these both may help to mask individuality, they have quite different effects on social status on a ward. One might say that the white coat increases visibility as a person of standing and the attribution of agency, the patient gown diminishes both of these. (Within these wards, although white coats were not to be found, the dress code of medical staff did make them stand out can i get ventolin over the counter uk.

For male doctors, for example, the uniform rarely strayed beyond chinos paired with a blue oxford button down shirt, sleeves rolled up, while women wore a wider range of smart casual office wear.) Likewise, we observed that the same arrangement of attire could be attributed to entirely different meanings for older patients with or without dementia.Removal of clothes and exposureWithin these wards, we observed high levels of behaviour perceived by ward staff as people living with dementia displaying ‘resistance’ to care.50 This included ‘resistance’ towards institutional clothing. This could include pulling up or removing hospital gowns, removing institutional pyjama trousers or pulling up gowns, and standing with gowns untied and exposed at the back (although this last example is an unavoidable design feature of the clothing itself). Importantly, the removal of clothing was limited to institutional can i get ventolin over the counter uk gowns and pyjamas and we did not see any patients removing their own clothing.

This also included the removal of institutional bedding, with instances of patients pulling or kicking sheets from their bed. These acts could and was often can i get ventolin over the counter uk interpreted by ward staff as a patient’s ‘resistance’ to care. There was some variation in this interpretation.

However, when an individual patient response to their institutional clothing and bedding was repeated during a shift, it was more likely to be conceived by the ward team as a form of resistance to their care, and responded to by the replacement and reinforcement of the clothing and bedding to recover the person.The removal of gowns, pyjamas and bedsheets often resulted in a patient exposing their genitalia or continence products (continence pads could be visible as a large diaper or nappy or a pad visibly held in place by transparent net pants), and as such, was disruptive to the norms and highly visible to staff and other visitor to these wards. Notably, unlike other behaviours considered by staff to be disruptive or inappropriate within these wards such can i get ventolin over the counter uk as shouting or crying out, the removal of bedsheets and the subsequent bodily exposure would always be immediately corrected, the sheet replaced and the patient covered by either the nurse or HCA. The act of removal was typically interpreted by ward staff as representing a feature of the person’s dementia and staff responses were framed as an issue of patient dignity, or the dignity and embarrassment of other patients and visitors to the ward.

However, such responses to removal could lead to further cycles of removal and replacement, leading can i get ventolin over the counter uk to an escalation of distress in the person. This was important, because the recording of ‘refusal of care’, or presumed ‘confusion’ associated with this, could have significant impacts on the care and discharge pathways available and prescribed for the individual patient.Consider the case of a woman living with dementia who is 90 years old (patient 1), in the example below. Despite having no immediate medical needs, she has been admitted to the MAU from a care home (following her husband’s stroke, he could no longer care for her).

Across the previous evening and morning shift, she can i get ventolin over the counter uk was shouting, refusing all food and care and has received assistance from the specialist dementia care worker. However, during this shift, she has become calmer following a visit from her husband earlier in the day, has since eaten and requested drinks. Her care home would not readmit her, which meant she was not able to be discharged from the unit (an overflow unit due to a high number of admissions to the emergency department during a patch of exceptionally hot weather) until alternative arrangements could be made by social services.During our observations, she remains calm for the first 2 hours.

When she does talk, she is very loud and high pitched, but this is normal for her and not a sign can i get ventolin over the counter uk of distress. For staff working on this bay, their attention is elsewhere, because of the other six patients on the unit, one is ‘on suicide watch’ and another is ‘refusing their medication’ (but does not have a diagnosis of dementia). At 15:10 can i get ventolin over the counter uk patient 1 begins to remove her sheets:15:10.

The unit seems chaotic today. Patient 1 has begun to loudly drum her fingers on the tray table. She still has not been brought more milk, which she requested from the HCA an hour can i get ventolin over the counter uk earlier.

The bay that patient 1 is admitted to is a temporary overflow unit and as a result staff do not know where things are. 1 has moved her sheets off her legs, her bare knees peeking out over the top of piled sheets.15:15. The nurse in charge says, ‘Hello,’ when she walks past can i get ventolin over the counter uk 1’s bed.

1 looks across and smiles back at her. The nurse in charge explains can i get ventolin over the counter uk to her that she needs to shuffle up the bed. 1 asks the nurse about her husband.

The nurse reminds 1 that her husband was there this morning and that he is coming back tomorrow. 1 says that he hasn’t been and she does not believe can i get ventolin over the counter uk the nurse.15:25. I overhear the nurse in charge question, under her breath to herself, ‘Why 1 has been left on the unit?.

€™ 1 has started asking for somebody to come and see her. The nurse in charge tells 1 that she needs to do some jobs first and then will come and talk to can i get ventolin over the counter uk her.15:30. 1 has once again kicked her sheets off of her legs.

A social worker comes onto the can i get ventolin over the counter uk unit. 1 shouts, ‘Excuse me’ to her. The social worker replies, ‘Sorry I’m not staff, I don’t work here’ and leaves the bay.15:40.

1 keeps kicking sheets off can i get ventolin over the counter uk her bed, otherwise the unit is quiet. She now whimpers whenever anyone passes her bed, which is whenever anyone comes through the unit’s door. 1 is the only elderly patient on the unit.

Again, the nurse in charge is heard can i get ventolin over the counter uk sympathizing that this is not the right place for her.16:30. A doctor approaches 1, tells her that she is on her list of people to say hello to, she is quite friendly. 1 tells her that she has been can i get ventolin over the counter uk here for 3 days, (the rest is inaudible because of pitch).

The doctor tries to cover 1 up, raising her bed sheet back over the bed, but 1 loudly refuses this. The doctor responds by ending the interaction, ‘See you later’, and leaves the unit.16:40. 1 attempts to talk to the new nurse assigned to the unit can i get ventolin over the counter uk.

She goes over to 1 and says, ‘What’s up my darling?. €™ It’s hard to follow 1 now as she sounds very upset. The RN’s first instinct, like with the doctor and the nurse in charge, is to cover up 1 s legs with her bed can i get ventolin over the counter uk sheet.

When 1 reacts to this she talks to her and they agree to cover up her knees. 1 is talking about how her husband won’t come and visit can i get ventolin over the counter uk her, and still sounds really upset about this. [Site 3, Day 13]Of note is that between days 6 and 15 at this site, observed over a particularly warm summer, this unit was uncomfortably hot and stuffy.

The need to be uncovered could be viewed as a reasonable response, and in fact was considered acceptable for patients without a classification of dementia, provided they were otherwise clothed, such as the hospital gown patient 1 was wearing. This is an example of an aspect of care where the choice and autonomy granted to patients assessed as having (or assumed to have) cognitive capacity is not available to people who are considered to have impaired cognitive capacity (a diagnosis of dementia) and carries the additional moral judgements of the can i get ventolin over the counter uk appropriateness of behaviour and bodily exposure. In the example given above, the actions were linked to the patient’s resistance to their admission to the hospital, driven by her desire to return home and to be with her husband.

Throughout observations over this 10-day period, patients perceived by staff as rational agents were allowed to strip down their bedding for comfort, whereas patients living with dementia who responded in this way were often viewed by staff as ‘undressing’, which would be interpreted as a feature of their condition, to be challenged and corrected by staff.Note how the same visual data triggered opposing interpretations of personal autonomy. Just as in the example above where distress over loss of familiar clothing may be can i get ventolin over the counter uk interpreted as an aspect of confusion, yet lead to, or exacerbate, distress and disorientation. So ‘deviant’ bedding may be interpreted, for some patients only, in ways that solidify notions of lack of agency and confusion, is another example of the Matthew effect48 at work through the organisational expectations of the clothed appearance of patients.Within wards, it is not unusual to see patients, especially those with a diagnosis of dementia or cognitive impairment, walking in the corridor inadvertently in some state of undress, typically exposed from behind by their hospital gowns.

This exposure in itself is of course, an intrinsic functional feature of the design can i get ventolin over the counter uk of the flimsy back-opening institutional clothing the patient has been placed in. This task-based clothing does not even fulfil this basic function very adequately. However, this inadvertent exposure could often be interpreted as an overt act of resistance to the ward and towards staff, especially when it led to exposed genitalia or continence products (pads or nappies).We speculate that the interpretation of resistance may be triggered by the visual prompt of disarrayed clothing and the meanings assumed to follow, where lack of decorum in attire is interpreted as indicating more general behavioural incompetence, cognitive impairment and/or standing outside the social order.DiscussionPrevious studies examining the significance of the visual, particularly Twigg and Buse’s work16–19 exploring the materialities of appearance, emphasise its key role in self-presentation, visibility, dignity and autonomy for older people and especially those living with dementia in care home settings.

Similarly, care home studies have demonstrated that institutional clothing, designed to facilitate task-based care, can be potentially dehumanising or and distressing.25 26 Our findings resonate with this work, but find that for people living with dementia within a key site of care, the acute ward, the impact of institutional clothing on the can i get ventolin over the counter uk individual patient living with dementia, is poorly recognised, but is significant for the quality and humanity of their care.Our ethnographic approach enabled the researchers to observe the organisation and delivery of task-oriented fast-paced nature of the work of the ward and bedside care. Nonetheless, it should also be emphasised the instances in which staff such as HCAs and specialist dementia staff within these wards took time to take note of personal appearance and physical caring for patients and how important this can be for overall well-being. None of our observations should be read as critical of any individual staff, but reflects longstanding institutional cultures.Our previous work has examined how readily a person living with dementia within a hospital wards is vulnerable to dehumanisation,51 and to their behaviour within these wards being interpreted as a feature of their condition, rather than a response to the ways in which timetabled care is delivered at their bedside.50 We have also examined the ways in which visual stimuli within these wards in the form of signs and symbols indicating a diagnosis of dementia may inadvertently focus attention away from the individual patient and may incline towards simplified and inaccurate categorisation of both needs and the diagnostic category of dementia.52Our work supports the analysis of the two forms of attention arising from McGilchrist’s work.10 The institutional culture of the wards produces an organisational task-based technical attention, which we found appeared to compete with and reduce the opportunity for ward staff to seek a finer emotional attunement to the person they are caring for and their needs.

Focus on efficiency, pace and record keeping that measures individual task completion within a timetable of care can i get ventolin over the counter uk may worsen all these effects. Indeed, other work has shown that in some contexts, attention to visual appearance may itself be little more than a ‘task’ to achieve.49 McGilchrist makes clear, and we agree, that both forms of attention are vital, but more needs to be done to enable staff to find a balance.Previous work has shown how important appearance is to older people, and to people living with dementia in particular, both in terms of how they are perceived by others, but also how for this group, people living with dementia, clothing and personal grooming may act as a particularly important anchor into a familiar social world. These twin aspects of clothing and appearance—self-perception and perception by others—may be especially important in the fast-paced context of an acute ward environment, can i get ventolin over the counter uk where patients living with dementia may be struggling with the impacts of an additional acute medical condition within in a highly timetabled and regimented and unfamiliar environment of the ward, and where staff perceptions of them may feed into clinical assessments of their condition and subsequent treatment and discharge pathways.

We have seen above, for instance, how behaviour in relation to appearance may be seen as ‘resisting care’ in one group of patients, but as the natural expression of personal preference in patients viewed as being without cognitive impairments. Likewise, personal grooming might impact favourably on a patient’s alertness, visibility and status within the ward.Prior work has demonstrated the importance of the medical gaze for the perceptions of the patient. Other work has also shown how older people, and in particular people living with dementia, may be thought to be beyond concern for appearance, yet this does not accurately reflect the importance of appearance we found for this patient can i get ventolin over the counter uk group.

Indeed, we argue that our work, along with the work of others such as Kontos,20 21 shows that if anything, visual appearance is especially important for people living with dementia particularly within clinical settings. In considering the task of washing the patient, Pols53 considered ‘dignitas’ in terms of aesthetic values, in comparison to humanitas conceived as citizen values of equality between persons. Attention to dignitas in the can i get ventolin over the counter uk form of appearance may be a way of facilitating the treatment by others of a person with humanitas, and helping to realise dignity of patients.Data availability statementNo data are available.

Data are unavailable to protect anonymity.Ethics statementsPatient consent for publicationNot required.Ethics approvalEthics committee approval for the study was granted by the NHS Research Ethics Service (15/WA/0191).AcknowledgmentsThe authors acknowledge funding support from the NIHR.Notes1. Devan Stahl can i get ventolin over the counter uk (2013). €œLiving into the imagined body.

How the diagnostic image confronts the lived body.” Medical Humanities. Medhum-2012–010286.2. Joyce Zazulak et al.

(2017). "The art of medicine. Arts-based training in observation and mindfulness for fostering the empathic response in medical residents.” Medical Humanities.

Medhum-2016-011180.3. E Forde (2018). "Using photography to enhance GP trainees’ reflective practice and professional development." Medical Humanities.

Medhum-2017-011203.4. Caroline Wellbery and Melissa Chan (2014) “White coat, patient gown.” Medical Humanities. Medhum-2013–0 10 463.5.

E Goffman (1990a). Stigma. Notes on the management of spoiled identity, Penguin.6.

J Bridges and C Wilkinson (2011). €œAchieving dignity for older people with dementia in hospital.” Nursing Standard 5 (29).7. J Dancy (1985).

Contemporary Epistemology, John Wiley and Sons.8. D McNaughton (1988). Moral Vision.

Blackwell.9. S Weil (1953). Gravity and Grace.

U of Nebraska Press.10. I McGilchrist (2009). The Master and his Emissary.

The divided brain and the making of the western world. New Haven and London, Yale University Press.11. Iain McGilchrist (2011).

€œPaying attention to the bipartite brain.” The Lancet 377 (9771). 1068–1069.12. Efrat Tseëlon (1992).

€œSelf presentation through appearance. A manipulative vs a dramaturgical approach”. Symbolic Interaction, 15(4).

501–514.13. E Tseëlon (1995). The masque of femininity.

The presentation of woman in everyday life. London. Sage.14.

E Goffman (1990b). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Penguin15. Efrat Tseëlon (2001).

€œFashion research and its discontents”. Fashion Theory, 5 (4). 435–451.16.

Julia Twigg (2010a). €œClothing and dementia. A neglected dimension?.

€ Journal of Ageing Studies 24(4). 223–230.17. Julia Twigg and Christina E Buse (2013).

€œDress, dementia and the embodiment of identity.” Dementia 12(3). 326–336.18. C.

E Buse and J. Twigg (2015). €œClothing, embodied identity and dementia.

Maintaining the self through dress.” Age, Culture, Humanities (2).19. Christina Buse and Julia Twigg (2018). €œDressing disrupted.

Negotiating care through the materiality of dress in the context of dementia.” Sociology of Health &. Illness, 40(2). 340-352.20.

PIA C Kontos (2004). Ethnographic reflections on selfhood, embodiment and Alzheimer's disease. Ageing &.

C Kontos (2005). €œEmbodied selfhood in Alzheimer's disease. Rethinking person-centred care.” Dementia 4 (4).

Naglie (2007). €œBridging theory and practice. Imagination, the body, and person-centred dementia care.” Dementia 6 (4).

549–569.23. Richard Ward et al. (2016a).

€œâ€˜Gonna make yer gorgeous’. Everyday transformation, resistance and belonging in the care-based hair salon.” Dementia, 15(3). 395–413.24.

Richard Ward, Sarah Campbell, and John Keady (2016b). €œAssembling the salon. Learning from alternative forms of body work in dementia care.” Sociology of Health &.

Illness, 38(8). 1287–1302.25. Sonja Iltanen-Tähkävuori, Minttu Wikberg, and Päivi Topo (2012).

Design and dementia. A case of garments designed to prevent undressing. Dementia, 11(1).

49–59.26. Päivi Topo and Sonja Iltanen-Tähkävuori (2010). €œScripting patienthood with patient clothing.” Social Science &.

Medicine, 70(11). 1682–1689.27. Julia Twigg (2010b).

€œWelfare embodied. The materiality of hospital dress. A commentary on Topo and Iltanen-Tähkävuori”.

Social Science and Medicine, 70(11), 1690–1692.28. Kathleen Woodward (2006). €œPerforming age, performing gender” National Women’s Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 18(1).

162–89.29. K.M Woodward (1999). Introduction.

In K.M. Woodward (ed.), Figuring Age. Women, Bodies and Generations (pp.

Ix-xxix). Bloomington. Indiana University Press.30.

M Hammersley and P Atkinson (1989). Ethnography. Principles in practice.

J Caracelli (2006). Enhancing the policy process through the use of ethnography and other study frameworks. A mixed-method strategy.

Research in the Schools, 13(1). 84–92.32. W Housley and P Atkinson (2003).

Interactionism, Sage33. M Hammersley (1987) What's Wrong with Ethnography?. Methodological Explorations.

London. Routledge34. V Turner and E Bruner (1986).

The Anthropology of Experience New York. PAJ Publications. 2435.

K Charmaz and RG Mitchell (2001). €˜Grounded theory in ethnography’ in Atkinson P. (Ed) Handbook of Ethnography, 2001.

B Glaser and A Strauss (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory. London.

Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 24(25). 288–30437. Juliet M.

Corbin and Anselm Strauss (1990). Grounded theoryrResearch. Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria.

Grounded theory and the constant comparative method. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 316 (7137),:1064.39. Roy Suddaby (2006).

€œFrom the editors. What grounded theory is not.” Academy of management journal, 49(4). 633–642.40.

Elizabeth L Sampson et al. (2009). €œDementia in the acute hospital.

Prospective cohort study of prevalence and mortality”. British Journal of Psychiatry,195(1). 61–66.

Doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.05533541. C Pinkert and B Holle (2012). €œPeople with dementia in acute hospitals.

Literature review of prevalence and reasons for hospital admission”. Z. Gerontol.

Robert E Herriott and William A. Firestone (1983) “Multisite qualitative policy research. Optimising description and generalizability”.

Education Research 12:14–1943. F Vogt (2002). €œNo ethnography without comparison.

The methodological significance of comparison in ethnographic research” Studies in Education Ethnography 6:23–4244. Benjamin Saunders et al. (2018).

€œSaturation in qualitative research. Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization.” Quality and Quantity 52 (4). 1893–1907.45.

A Coffey and P Atkinson (1996). Making sense of qualitative data. Complementary research strategies.

Sage Publications, Inc.46. Paula Boddington and Katie Featherstone (2018). €œThe canary in the coal mine.

Continence care for people with dementia in acute hospital wards as a crisis of dehumanisation”. Bioethics, 32(4). 251–260.47.

Christina Buse et al. (2014). €œLooking “out of place”.

Analysing the spatial and symbolic meanings of dementia care settings through dress.” International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 9 (1). 69–95.48. R.

K. Merton (1968). €œThe Matthew effect in science.

The reward and communication systems of science are considered.” Science 159 (3810). 56–63.49. Geraldine Lee-Treweek (1997) “Women, resistance and care.

An ethnographic study of nursing auxiliary work” Work, Employment and Society, 11(1). 47–6350. Katie Featherstone et al.

(2019b). €œRefusal and resistance to care by people living with dementia being cared for within acute hospital wards. An ethnographic study” Health Service and Delivery Research51.

Katie Featherstone, Andy Northcott, and Jackie Bridges (2019a). €œRoutines of resistance. An ethnography of the care of people living with dementia in acute hospital wards and its consequences.” International Journal of Nursing Studies.52.

K Featherstone, A Northcott, and P Boddington (2020). €œUsing signs and symbols to identify hospital patients with a dementia diagnosis. Help or hindrance to recognition and care?.

€ Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics53. Jeannette Pols (2013). €œWashing the patient.

Dignity and aesthetic values in nursing care” Nursing Philosophy, 14(3). 186–200.

Atrovent and ventolin nebulizer

How to atrovent and ventolin nebulizer cite this article:Singh how to get ventolin prescription OP. The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 and its implication for mental health. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:119-20The National atrovent and ventolin nebulizer Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 has been notified on March 28, 2021, by the Gazette of India published by the Ministry of Law and Justice.

This bill aims to “provide for regulation and maintenance of standards of education and services by allied and healthcare professionals, assessment of institutions, maintenance of a Central Register and State Register and creation of a system to improve access, research and development and adoption of latest scientific advancement and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”[1]This act has created a category of Health Care Professionals which is defined as. €œhealthcare professional” includes a scientist, therapist, or other professional who studies, advises, researches, supervises or provides preventive, curative, rehabilitative, therapeutic or promotional health services and who has obtained any qualification of degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be <3600 h spread over a period of 3 years to 6 years divided into specific semesters.[1]According to the act, “Allied health professional” includes an associate, technician, or technologist who is trained to perform any technical and practical task to support diagnosis and treatment of illness, disease, injury or impairment, and to support implementation of any healthcare treatment and referral plan recommended by a medical, nursing, or any other atrovent and ventolin nebulizer healthcare professional, and who has obtained any qualification of diploma or degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be less than 2000 h spread over a period of 2 years to 4 years divided into specific semesters.”[1]It is noticeable that while the term “Health Care Professionals” does not include doctors who are registered under National Medical Council, Mental Health Care Act (MHCA), 2017 includes psychiatrists under the ambit of Mental Health Care Professionals.[2] This discrepancy needs to be corrected - psychiasts, being another group of medical specialists, should be kept out of the broad umbrella of “Mental Healthcare Professionals.”The category of Behavioural Health Sciences Professional has been included and defined as “a person who undertakes scientific study of the emotions, behaviours and biology relating to a person's mental well-being, their ability to function in everyday life and their concept of self. €œBehavioural health” is the preferred term to “mental health” and includes professionals such as counselors, analysts, psychologists, educators and support workers, who provide counseling, therapy, and mediation services to individuals, families, groups, and communities in response to social and personal difficulties.”[1]This is a welcome step to the extent that it creates a diverse category of trained workforce in the field of Mental Health (Behavioural Health Science Professionals) and tries to regulate their training although it mainly aims to promote mental wellbeing.

However there is a huge lacuna in the term of “Mental Illness” atrovent and ventolin nebulizer as defined by MHCA, 2017. Only severe disorders are included as per definition and there is no clarity regarding inclusion of other psychiatric disorders, namely “common mental disorders” such as anxiety and depression. This leaves a strong possibility of concept of “psychiatric illnesses” being limited to only “severe psychiatric disorders” (major atrovent and ventolin nebulizer psychoses) thus perpetuating the stigma and alienation associated with psychiatric patients for centuries.

Psychiatrists being restricted to treating severe mental disorders as per MHCA, 2017, there is a strong possibility that the care of common mental disorders may gradually pass on under the care of “behavioural health professionals” as per the new act!. There is need to look into this aspect by the atrovent and ventolin nebulizer leadership in psychiatry, both organizational and academic psychiatry, and reduce the contradictions between the MHCA, 2017 and this nascent act. All disorders classified in ICD 10 and DSM 5 should be classified as “Psychiatric Disorders” or “Mental Illness.” This will not only help in fighting the stigma associated with psychiatric illnesses but also promote the integration of psychiatry with other specialties.

References 1.The atrovent and ventolin nebulizer National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2021. The Gazette of India. Published by atrovent and ventolin nebulizer Ministry of Law and Justice.

28 March, 2021. 2.The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 atrovent and ventolin nebulizer. The Gazette of India.

Published by atrovent and ventolin nebulizer Ministry of Law and Justice. April 7, 2017. Correspondence Address:Om Prakash SinghAA 304, Ashabari Apartments, atrovent and ventolin nebulizer O/31, Baishnabghata, Patuli Township, Kolkata - 700 094, West Bengal IndiaSource of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_268_21Abstract Thiamine is atrovent and ventolin nebulizer essential for the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism in humans.

Chronic alcohol use is associated with deficiency of thiamine along with other vitamins through several mechanisms. Several neuropsychiatric syndromes have been associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder including Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, alcoholic atrovent and ventolin nebulizer cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, and possibly, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome. High-dose thiamine replacement is suggested for these neuropsychiatric syndromes.Keywords.

Alcohol use disorder, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome, thiamine, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeHow to cite this article:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS atrovent and ventolin nebulizer. High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:121-6How to atrovent and ventolin nebulizer cite this URL:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS.

High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry [serial online] 2021 [cited 2021 atrovent and ventolin nebulizer May 5];63:121-6. Available from.

Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/2/121/313716 Introduction Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin (B1) that plays a key role in the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism. Thiamine pyrophosphate (or diphosphate) is the active form that acts as a cofactor for enzymes.

The daily dietary requirement of thiamine in adults is 1–2 mg and is dependent on carbohydrate intake.[1],[2] The requirement increases if basal metabolic rate is higher, for example, during alcohol withdrawal state. Dietary sources include pork (being the major source), meat, legume, vegetables, and enriched foods. The body can store between 30 and 50 mg of thiamine and is likely to get depleted within 4–6 weeks if the diet is deficient.[2] In those with alcohol-related liver damage, the ability to store thiamine is gradually reduced.[1],[2]Lower thiamine levels are found in 30%–80% of chronic alcohol users.[3] Thiamine deficiency occurs due to poor intake of vitamin-rich foods, impaired intestinal absorption, decreased storage capacity of liver, damage to the renal epithelial cells due to alcohol, leading to increased loss from the kidneys, and excessive loss associated with medical conditions.[2],[3] Furthermore, alcohol decreases the absorption of colonic bacterial thiamine, reduces the enzymatic activity of thiamine pyrophosphokinase, and thereby, reducing the amount of available thiamine pyrophosphate.[4] Since facilitated diffusion of thiamine into cells is dependent on a concentration gradient, reduced thiamine pyrophosphokinase activity further reduces thiamine uptake into cells.[4] Impaired utilization of thiamine is seen in certain conditions (e.g., hypomagnesemia) which are common in alcohol use disorder.[2],[3],[4] This narrative review discusses the neuropsychiatric syndromes associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder, and the treatment regimens advocated for these conditions.

A PubMed search supplemented with manual search was used to identify neuropsychiatric syndromes related to thiamine deficiency in alcohol use disorder patients. Neuropsychiatric Syndromes Associated With Thiamine Deficiency Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeWernicke encephalopathy is associated with chronic alcohol use, and if not identified and treated early, could lead to permanent brain damage characterized by an amnestic syndrome known as Korsakoff syndrome. Inappropriate treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy with lower doses of thiamine can lead to high mortality rates (~20%) and Korsakoff syndrome in ~ 80% of patients (ranges from 56% to 84%).[5],[6] The classic triad of Wernicke includes oculomotor abnormalities, cerebellar dysfunction, and confusion.

Wernicke lesions are found in 12.5% of brain samples of patients with alcohol dependence.[7] However, only 20%–30% of them had a clinical diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy antemortem. It has been found that many patients develop Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) following repeated subclinical episodes of thiamine deficiency.[7] In an autopsy report of 97 chronic alcohol users, only16% had all the three “classical signs,” 29% had two signs, 37% presented with one sign, and 19% had none.[8] Mental status changes are the most prevalent sign (seen in 82% of the cases), followed by eye signs (in 29%) and ataxia (23%).[8] WKS should be suspected in persons with a history of alcohol use and presenting with signs of ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, acute confusion, memory disturbance, unexplained hypotension, hypothermia, coma, or unconsciousness.[9] Operational criteria for the diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy have been proposed by Caine et al.[10] that requires two out of four features, i.e., (a) dietary deficiency (signs such as cheilitis, glossitis, and bleeding gums), (b) oculomotor abnormalities (nystagmus, opthalmoplegia, and diplopia), (c) cerebellar dysfunction (gait ataxia, nystagmus), and (d) either altered mental state (confusion) or mild memory impairment.As it is very difficult to clinically distinguish Wernicke encephalopathy from other associated conditions such as delirium tremens, hepatic encephalopathy, or head injury, it is prudent to have a lower threshold to diagnose this if any of the clinical signs is seen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan during Wernicke encephalopathy shows mammillary body atrophy and enlarged third ventricle, lesions in the medial portions of thalami and mid brain and can be used to aid diagnosis.[11],[12] However, most clinical situations warrant treatment without waiting for neuroimaging report.

The treatment suggestions in the guidelines vary widely. Furthermore, hardly any evidence-based recommendations exist on a more general use of thiamine as a preventative intervention in individuals with alcohol use disorder.[13] There are very few studies that have evaluated the dose and duration of thiamine for WKS, but higher doses may result in a greater response.[6],[14] With thiamine administration rapid improvement is seen in eye movement abnormalities (improve within days or weeks) and ataxia (may take months to recover), but the effects on memory, in particular, are unclear.[4],[14] Severe memory impairment is the core feature of Korsakoff syndrome. Initial stages of the disease can present with confabulation, executive dysfunction, flattened affect, apathy, and poor insight.[15] Both the episodic and semantic memory are affected, whereas, procedural memory remains intact.[15]Thomson et al.[6] suggested the following should be treated with thiamine as they are at high risk for developing WKS.

(1) all patients with any evidence of chronic alcohol misuse and any of the following. Acute confusion, decreased conscious level, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, memory disturbance, and hypothermia with hypotension. (2) patients with delirium tremens may often also have Wernicke encephalopathy, therefore, all of these patients should be presumed to have Wernicke encephalopathy and treated, preferably as inpatients.

And (3) all hypoglycemic patients (who are treated with intravenous glucose) with evidence of chronic alcohol ingestion must be given intravenous thiamine immediately because of the risk of acutely precipitating Wernicke encephalopathy.Alcoholic cerebellar syndromeChronic alcohol use is associated with the degeneration of anterior superior vermis, leading to a clinical syndrome characterized by the subacute or chronic onset of gait ataxia and incoordination in legs, with relative sparing of upper limbs, speech, and oculomotor movements.[16] In severe cases, truncal ataxia, mild dysarthria, and incoordination of the upper limb is also found along with gait ataxia. Thiamine deficiency is considered to be the etiological factor,[17],[18] although direct toxic effects of alcohol may also contribute to this syndrome. One-third of patients with chronic use of alcohol have evidence of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration.

However, population-based studies estimate prevalence to be 14.6%.[19] The effect of alcohol on the cerebellum is graded with the most severe deficits occurring in alcohol users with the longest duration and highest severity of use. The diagnosis of cerebellar degeneration is largely clinical. MRI can be used to evaluate for vermian atrophy but is unnecessary.[20] Anterior portions of vermis are affected early, with involvement of posterior vermis and adjacent lateral hemispheres occurring late in the course could be used to differentiate alcoholic cerebellar degeneration from other conditions that cause more diffuse involvement.[21] The severity of cerebellar syndrome is more in the presence of WKS, thus could be related to thiamine deficiency.[22],[23] Therefore, this has been considered as a cerebellar presentation of WKS and should be treated in a similar way.[16] There are anecdotal evidence to suggest improvement in cerebellar syndrome with high-dose thiamine.[24]Alcoholic peripheral neuropathyPeripheral neuropathy is common in alcohol use disorder and is seen in 44% of the users.[25] It has been associated predominantly with thiamine deficiency.

However, deficiency of other B vitamins (pyridoxine and cobalamin) and direct toxic effect of alcohol is also implicated.[26] Clinically, onset of symptoms is gradual with the involvement of both sensory and motor fibers and occasionally autonomic fibers. Neuropathy can affect both small and large peripheral nerve fibers, leading to different clinical manifestations. Thiamine deficiency-related neuropathy affects larger fiber types, which results in motor deficits and sensory ataxia.

On examination, large fiber involvement is manifested by distal limb muscle weakness and loss of proprioception and vibratory sensation. Together, these can contribute to the gait unsteadiness seen in chronic alcohol users by creating a superimposed steppage gait and reduced proprioceptive input back to the movement control loops in the central nervous system. The most common presentations include painful sensations in both lower limbs, sometimes with burning sensation or numbness, which are early symptoms.

Typically, there is a loss of vibration sensation in distal lower limbs. Later symptoms include loss of proprioception, gait disturbance, and loss of reflexes. Most advanced findings include weakness and muscle atrophy.[20] Progression is very gradual over months and involvement of upper limbs may occur late in the course.

Diagnosis begins with laboratory evaluation to exclude other causes of distal, sensorimotor neuropathy including hemoglobin A1c, liver function tests, and complete blood count to evaluate for red blood cell macrocytosis. Cerebrospinal fluid studies may show increased protein levels but should otherwise be normal in cases of alcohol neuropathy and are not recommended in routine evaluation. Electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to distinguish whether the neuropathy is axonal or demyelinating and whether it is motor, sensory, or mixed type.

Alcoholic neuropathy shows reduced distal, sensory amplitudes, and to a lesser extent, reduced motor amplitudes on nerve conduction studies.[20] Abstinence and vitamin supplementation including thiamine are the treatments advocated for this condition.[25] In mild-to-moderate cases, near-complete improvement can be achieved.[20] Randomized controlled trials have showed a significant improvement in alcoholic polyneuropathy with thiamine treatment.[27],[28]Marchiafava–Bignami syndromeThis is a rare but fatal condition seen in chronic alcohol users that is characterized by progressive demyelination and necrosis of the corpus callosum. The association of this syndrome with thiamine deficiency is not very clear, and direct toxic effects of alcohol are also suggested.[29] The clinical syndrome is variable and presentation can be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute forms, it is predominantly characterized by the altered mental state such as delirium, stupor, or coma.[30] Other clinical features in neuroimaging confirmed Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome (MBS) cases include impaired gait, dysarthria, mutism, signs of split-brain syndrome, pyramidal tract signs, primitive reflexes, rigidity, incontinence, gaze palsy, diplopia, and sensory symptoms.[30] Neuropsychiatric manifestations are common and include psychotic symptoms, depression, apathy, aggressive behavior, and sometimes dementia.[29] MRI scan shows lesions of the corpus callosum, particularly splenium.

Treatment for this condition is mostly supportive and use of nutritional supplements and steroids. However, there are several reports of improvement of this syndrome with thiamine at variable doses including reports of beneficial effects with high-dose strategy.[29],[30],[31] Early initiation of thiamine, preferably within 2 weeks of the onset of symptoms is associated with a better outcome. Therefore, high-dose thiamine should be administered to all suspected cases of MBS.

Laboratory Diagnosis of Thiamine Deficiency Estimation of thiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate levels may confirm the diagnosis of deficiency. Levels of thiamine in the blood are not reliable indicators of thiamine status. Low erythrocyte transketolase activity is also helpful.[32],[33] Transketolase concentrations of <120 nmol/L have also been used to indicate deficiency, while concentrations of 120–150 nmol/L suggest marginal thiamine status.[1] However, these tests are not routinely performed as it is time consuming, expensive, and may not be readily available.[34] The ETKA assay is a functional test rather than a direct measurement of thiamin status and therefore may be influenced by factors other than thiamine deficiency such as diabetes mellitus and polyneuritis.[1] Hence, treatment should be initiated in the absence of laboratory confirmation of thiamine deficiency.

Furthermore, treatment should not be delayed if tests are ordered, but the results are awaited. Electroencephalographic abnormalities in thiamine deficiency states range from diffuse mild-to-moderate slow waves and are not a good diagnostic option, as the prevalence of abnormalities among patients is inconsistent.[35]Surrogate markers, which reflect chronic alcohol use and nutritional deficiency other than thiamine, may be helpful in identifying at-risk patients. This includes gamma glutamate transferase, aspartate aminotransferase.

Alanine transaminase ratio >2:1, and increased mean corpuscular volume.[36] They are useful when a reliable history of alcohol use is not readily available, specifically in emergency departments when treatment needs to be started immediately to avoid long-term consequences. Thiamine Replacement Therapy Oral versus parenteral thiamineIntestinal absorption of thiamine depends on active transport through thiamine transporter 1 and 2, which follow saturation kinetics.[1] Therefore, the rate and amount of absorption of thiamine in healthy individuals is limited. In healthy volunteers, a 10 mg dose results in maximal absorption of thiamine, and any doses higher than this do not increase thiamine levels.

Therefore, the maximum amount of thiamine absorbed from 10 mg or higher dose is between 4.3 and 5.6 mg.[37] However, it has been suggested that, although thiamine transport occurs through the energy-requiring, sodium-dependent active process at physiologic concentrations, at higher supraphysiologic concentrations thiamine uptake is mostly a passive process.[38] Smithline et al. Have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve higher serum thiamine levels with oral doses up to 1500 mg.[39]In chronic alcohol users, intestinal absorption is impaired. Hence, absorption rates are expected to be much lower.

It is approximately 30% of that seen in healthy individuals, i.e., 1.5 mg of thiamine is absorbed from 10 mg oral thiamine.[3] In those consuming alcohol and have poor nutrition, not more than 0.8 mg of thiamine is absorbed.[2],[3],[6] The daily thiamine requirement is 1–1.6 mg/day, which may be more in alcohol-dependent patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[1] It is highly likely that oral supplementation with thiamine will be inadequate in alcohol-dependent individuals who continue to drink. Therefore, parenteral thiamine is preferred for supplementation in deficiency states associated with chronic alcohol use. Therapy involving parenteral thiamine is considered safe except for occasional circumstances of allergic reactions involving pruritus and local irritation.There is a small, but definite risk of anaphylaxis with parenteral thiamine, specifically with intravenous administration (1/250,000 intravenous injections).[40] Diluting thiamine in 50–100 mg normal saline for infusion may reduce the risk.

However, parenteral thiamine should always be administered under observation with the necessary facilities for resuscitation.A further important issue involves the timing of administration of thiamine relative to the course of alcohol abuse or dependence. Administration of thiamine treatment to patients experiencing alcohol withdrawal may also be influenced by other factors such as magnesium depletion, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor upregulation, or liver impairment, all of which may alter thiamine metabolism and utilization.[6],[14]Thiamine or other preparations (e.g., benfotiamine)The thiamine transporters limit the rate of absorption of orally administered thiamine. Allithiamines (e.g., benfotiamine) are the lipid-soluble thiamine derivatives that are absorbed better, result in higher thiamine levels, and are retained longer in the body.[41] The thiamine levels with orally administered benfotiamine are much higher than oral thiamine and almost equals to intravenous thiamine given at the same dosage.[42]Benfotiamine has other beneficial effects including inhibition of production of advanced glycation end products, thus protecting against diabetic vascular complications.[41] It also modulates nuclear transcription factor κB (NK-κB), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, glycogen synthase kinase 3 β, etc., that play a role in cell repair and survival.[41] Benfotiamine has been found to be effective for the treatment of alcoholic peripheral neuropathy.[27]Dosing of thiamineAs the prevalence of thiamine deficiency is very common in chronic alcohol users, the requirement of thiamine increases in active drinkers and it is difficult to rapidly determine thiamine levels using laboratory tests, it is prudent that all patients irrespective of nutritional status should be administered parenteral thiamine.

The dose should be 100 mg thiamine daily for 3–5 days during inpatient treatment. Commonly, multivitamin injections are added to intravenous infusions. Patients at risk for thiamine deficiency should receive 250 mg of thiamine daily intramuscularly for 3–5 days, followed by oral thiamine 100 mg daily.[6]Thiamine plasma levels reduce to 20% of peak value after approximately 2 h of parenteral administration, thus reducing the effective “window period” for passive diffusion to the central nervous system.[6] Therefore, in thiamine deficient individuals with features of Wernicke encephalopathy should receive thiamine thrice daily.High-dose parenteral thiamine administered thrice daily has been advocated in patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[43] The Royal College of Physicians guideline recommends that patients with suspected Wernicke encephalopathy should receive 500 mg thiamine diluted in 50–100 ml of normal saline infusion over 30 min three times daily for 2–3 days and sometimes for longer periods.[13] If there are persistent symptoms such as confusion, cerebellar symptoms, or memory impairment, this regimen can be continued until the symptoms improve.

If symptoms improve, oral thiamine 100 mg thrice daily can be continued for prolonged periods.[6],[40] A similar treatment regimen is advocated for alcoholic cerebellar degeneration as well. Doses more than 500 mg intramuscular or intravenous three times a day for 3–5 days, followed by 250 mg once daily for a further 3–5 days is also recommended by some guidelines (e.g., British Association for Psychopharmacology).[44]Other effects of thiamineThere are some data to suggest that thiamine deficiency can modulate alcohol consumption and may result in pathological drinking. Benfotiamine 600 mg/day as compared to placebo for 6 months was well tolerated and found to decrease psychiatric distress in males and reduce alcohol consumption in females with severe alcohol dependence.[45],[46] Other Factors During Thiamine Therapy Correction of hypomagnesemiaMagnesium is a cofactor for many thiamine-dependent enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism.

Patients may fail to respond to thiamine supplementation in the presence of hypomagnesemia.[47] Magnesium deficiency is common in chronic alcohol users and is seen in 30% of individuals.[48],[49] It can occur because of increased renal excretion of magnesium, poor intake, decreased absorption because of Vitamin D deficiency, the formation of undissociated magnesium soaps with free fatty acids.[48],[49]The usual adult dose is 35–50 mmol of magnesium sulfate added to 1 L isotonic (saline) given over 12–24 h.[6] The dose has to be titrated against plasma magnesium levels. It is recommended to reduce the dose in renal failure. Contraindications include patients with documented hypersensitivity and those with heart block, Addison's disease, myocardial damage, severe hepatitis, or hypophosphatemia.

Do not administer intravenous magnesium unless hypomagnesemia is confirmed.[6]Other B-complex vitaminsMost patients with deficiency of thiamine will also have reduced levels of other B vitamins including niacin, pyridoxine, and cobalamin that require replenishment. For patients admitted to the intensive care unit with symptoms that may mimic or mask Wernicke encephalopathy, based on the published literature, routine supplementation during the 1st day of admission includes 200–500 mg intravenous thiamine every 8 h, 64 mg/kg magnesium sulfate (≈4–5 g for most adult patients), and 400–1000 μg intravenous folate.[50] If alcoholic ketoacidosis is suspected, dextrose-containing fluids are recommended over normal saline.[50] Precautions to be Taken When Administering Parenteral Thiamine It is recommended to monitor for anaphylaxis and has appropriate facilities for resuscitation and for treating anaphylaxis readily available including adrenaline and corticosteroids. Anaphylaxis has been reported at the rate of approximately 4/1 million pairs of ampoules of Pabrinex (a pair of high potency vitamins available in the UK containing 500 mg of thiamine (1:250,000 I/V administrations).[40] Intramuscular thiamine is reported to have a lower incidence of anaphylactic reactions than intravenous administration.[40] The reaction has been attributed to nonspecific histamine release.[51] Administer intravenous thiamine slowly, preferably by slow infusion in 100 ml normal saline over 15–30 min.

Conclusions Risk factors for thiamine deficiency should be assessed in chronic alcohol users. A high index of suspicion and a lower threshold to diagnose thiamine deficiency states including Wernicke encephalopathy is needed. Several other presentations such as cerebellar syndrome, MBS, polyneuropathy, and delirium tremens could be related to thiamine deficiency and should be treated with protocols similar to Wernicke encephalopathy.

High-dose thiamine is recommended for the treatment of suspected Wernicke encephalopathy and related conditions [Figure 1]. However, evidence in terms of randomized controlled trials is lacking, and the recommendations are based on small studies and anecdotal reports. Nevertheless, as all these conditions respond to thiamine supplementation, it is possible that these have overlapping pathophysiology and are better considered as Wernicke encephalopathy spectrum disorders.Figure 1.

Thiamine recommendations for patients with alcohol use disorder. AHistory of alcohol use, but no clinical features of WE. BNo clinical features of WE, but with risk factors such as complicated withdrawal (delirium, seizures).

CClinical features of WE (ataxia, opthalmoplegia, global confusion)Click here to viewFinancial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.Frank LL. Thiamin in clinical practice.

JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2015;39:503-20. 2.Thomson AD, Marshall EJ. The natural history and pathophysiology of Wernicke's Encephalopathy and Korsakoff's Psychosis.

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Role of thiamine. Pract Gastroenterol 2009;33:21-30. 4.Isenberg-Grzeda E, Kutner HE, Nicolson SE.

Wernicke-Korsakoff-syndrome. Under-recognized and under-treated. Psychosomatics 2012;53:507-16.

5.Wood B, Currie J, Breen K. Wernicke's encephalopathy in a metropolitan hospital. A prospective study of incidence, characteristics and outcome.

Med J Aust 1986;144:12-6. 6.Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA, Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol.

Guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol 2002;37:513-21. 7.Harper C.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and associated brain damage is still common throughout the world and prevention is simple and safe!. Eur J Neurol 2006;13:1078-82. 8.Harper CG, Giles M, Finlay-Jones R.

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9.Cook CC. Prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol 2000;35:19-20.

10.Caine D, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Operational criteria for the classification http://www.ec-gliesberg-strasbourg.ac-strasbourg.fr/?page_id=1076 of chronic alcoholics. Identification of Wernicke's encephalopathy.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:51-60. 11.Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Neuroimaging of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

Alcohol Alcohol 2009;44:155-65. 12.Jung YC, Chanraud S, Sullivan EV. Neuroimaging of Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's syndrome.

Neuropsychol Rev 2012;22:170-80. 13.Pruckner N, Baumgartner J, Hinterbuchinger B, Glahn A, Vyssoki S, Vyssoki B. Thiamine substitution in alcohol use disorder.

A narrative review of medical guidelines. Eur Addict Res 2019;25:103-10. 14.Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S.

Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;7:CD004033. Doi.

10.1002/14651858.CD004033.pub3. 15.Arts NJ, Walvoort SJ, Kessels RP. Korsakoff's syndrome.

A critical review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2017;13:2875-90. 16.Laureno R.

Nutritional cerebellar degeneration, with comments on its relationship to Wernicke disease and alcoholism. Handb Clin Neurol 2012;103:175-87. 17.Maschke M, Weber J, Bonnet U, Dimitrova A, Bohrenkämper J, Sturm S, et al.

Vermal atrophy of alcoholics correlate with serum thiamine levels but not with dentate iron concentrations as estimated by MRI. J Neurol 2005;252:704-11. 18.Mulholland PJ, Self RL, Stepanyan TD, Little HJ, Littleton JM, Prendergast MA.

Thiamine deficiency in the pathogenesis of chronic ethanol-associated cerebellar damage in vitro. Neuroscience 2005;135:1129-39. 19.Del Brutto OH, Mera RM, Sullivan LJ, Zambrano M, King NR.

Population-based study of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. The Atahualpa Project. J Neurol Sci 2016;367:356-60.

20.Hammoud N, Jimenez-Shahed J. Chronic neurologic effects of alcohol. Clin Liver Dis 2019;23:141-55.

21.Lee JH, Heo SH, Chang DI. Early-stage alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. Diagnostic imaging clues.

J Korean Med Sci 2015;30:1539. 22.Phillips SC, Harper CG, Kril JJ. The contribution of Wernicke's encephalopathy to alcohol-related cerebellar damage.

Drug Alcohol Rev 1990;9:53-60. 23.Baker KG, Harding AJ, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Neuroscience 1999;91:429-38. 24.Graham JR, Woodhouse D, Read FH. Massive thiamine dosage in an alcoholic with cerebellar cortical degeneration.

Lancet 1971;2:107. 25.Julian T, Glascow N, Syeed R, Zis P. Alcohol-related peripheral neuropathy.

A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol 2018;22:1-3. 26.Chopra K, Tiwari V.

Alcoholic neuropathy. Possible mechanisms and future treatment possibilities. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012;73:348-62.

27.Woelk H, Lehrl S, Bitsch R, Köpcke W. Benfotiamine in treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy. An 8-week randomized controlled study (BAP I Study).

Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:631-8. 28.Peters TJ, Kotowicz J, Nyka W, Kozubski W, Kuznetsov V, Vanderbist F, et al. Treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy with vitamin B complex.

A randomised controlled trial. Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:636-42. 29.Fernandes LM, Bezerra FR, Monteiro MC, Silva ML, de Oliveira FR, Lima RR, et al.

Thiamine deficiency, oxidative metabolic pathways and ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. How poor nutrition contributes to the alcoholic syndrome, as Marchiafava-Bignami disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017;71:580-6.

30.Hillbom M, Saloheimo P, Fujioka S, Wszolek ZK, Juvela S, Leone MA. Diagnosis and management of Marchiafava-Bignami disease. A review of CT/MRI confirmed cases.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014;85:168-73. 31.Nemlekar SS, Mehta RY, Dave KR, Shah ND. Marchiafava.

Bignami disease treated with parenteral thiamine. Indian J Psychol Med 2016;38:147-9. [Full text] 32.Brin M.

Erythrocyte transketolase in early thiamine deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1962;98:528-41. 33.Dreyfus PM.

Clinical application of blood transketolase determinations. N Engl J Med 1962;267:596-8. 34.Edwards KA, Tu-Maung N, Cheng K, Wang B, Baeumner AJ, Kraft CE.

Thiamine assays – Advances, challenges, and caveats. ChemistryOpen 2017;6:178-91. 35.Chandrakumar A, Bhardwaj A, 't Jong GW.

Review of thiamine deficiency disorders. Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2018;30:153-62.

36.Torruellas C, French SW, Medici V. Diagnosis of alcoholic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:11684-99.

37.Thomson AD, Leevy CM. Observations on the mechanism of thiamine hydrochloride absorption in man. Clin Sci 1972;43:153-63.

38.Hoyumpa AM Jr., Strickland R, Sheehan JJ, Yarborough G, Nichols S. Dual system of intestinal thiamine transport in humans. J Lab Clin Med 1982;99:701-8.

39.Smithline HA, Donnino M, Greenblatt DJ. Pharmacokinetics of high-dose oral thiamine hydrochloride in healthy subjects. BMC Clin Pharmacol 2012;12:4.

40.Latt N, Dore G. Thiamine in the treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy in patients with alcohol use disorders. Intern Med J 2014;44:911-5.

41.Raj V, Ojha S, Howarth FC, Belur PD, Subramanya SB. Therapeutic potential of benfotiamine and its molecular targets. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2018;22:3261-73.

42.Xie F, Cheng Z, Li S, Liu X, Guo X, Yu P, et al. Pharmacokinetic study of benfotiamine and the bioavailability assessment compared to thiamine hydrochloride. J Clin Pharmacol 2014;54:688-95.

43.Cook CC, Hallwood PM, Thomson AD. B Vitamin deficiency and neuropsychiatric syndromes in alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:317-36.

44.Lingford-Hughes AR, Welch S, Peters L, Nutt DJ, British Association for Psychopharmacology, Expert Reviewers Group. BAP updated guidelines. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity.

Recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:899-952. 45.Manzardo AM, He J, Poje A, Penick EC, Campbell J, Butler MG.

Double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of benfotiamine for severe alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;133:562-70. 46.Manzardo AM, Pendleton T, Poje A, Penick EC, Butler MG.

Change in psychiatric symptomatology after benfotiamine treatment in males is related to lifetime alcoholism severity. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;152:257-63. 47.Dingwall KM, Delima JF, Gent D, Batey RG.

Hypomagnesaemia and its potential impact on thiamine utilisation in patients with alcohol misuse at the Alice Springs Hospital. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:323-8. 48.Flink EB.

Magnesium deficiency in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1986;10:590-4. 49.Grochowski C, Blicharska E, Baj J, Mierzwińska A, Brzozowska K, Forma A, et al.

Serum iron, magnesium, copper, and manganese levels in alcoholism. A systematic review. Molecules 2019;24:E1361.

50.Flannery AH, Adkins DA, Cook AM. Unpeeling the evidence for the banana bag. Evidence-based recommendations for the management of alcohol-associated vitamin and electrolyte deficiencies in the ICU.

Crit Care Med 2016;44:1545-52. 51.Lagunoff D, Martin TW, Read G. Agents that release histamine from mast cells.

Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1983;23:331-51. Correspondence Address:Samir Kumar PraharajDepartment of Psychiatry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest.

NoneDOI. 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_440_20 Figures [Figure 1].

How to cite this can i get ventolin over the counter uk article:Singh OP. The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 and its implication for mental health. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:119-20The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, can i get ventolin over the counter uk 2020 has been notified on March 28, 2021, by the Gazette of India published by the Ministry of Law and Justice.

This bill aims to “provide for regulation and maintenance of standards of education and services by allied and healthcare professionals, assessment of institutions, maintenance of a Central Register and State Register and creation of a system to improve access, research and development and adoption of latest scientific advancement and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”[1]This act has created a category of Health Care Professionals which is defined as. €œhealthcare professional” includes a scientist, therapist, or other professional who studies, advises, researches, supervises or provides preventive, curative, rehabilitative, therapeutic or promotional health services and who has obtained any qualification of degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be <3600 h spread over a period of 3 years to 6 years divided into specific semesters.[1]According to the act, “Allied health professional” includes an associate, technician, or technologist who is trained to perform any technical and practical task to support diagnosis and treatment of illness, disease, injury or impairment, and to support implementation of any healthcare treatment and referral plan recommended by a medical, nursing, or any other healthcare professional, and who has obtained any qualification of diploma or degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be less than 2000 h spread over a period of 2 years to 4 years divided into specific semesters.”[1]It is noticeable that while the term “Health Care can i get ventolin over the counter uk Professionals” does not include doctors who are registered under National Medical Council, Mental Health Care Act (MHCA), 2017 includes psychiatrists under the ambit of Mental Health Care Professionals.[2] This discrepancy needs to be corrected - psychiasts, being another group of medical specialists, should be kept out of the broad umbrella of “Mental Healthcare Professionals.”The category of Behavioural Health Sciences Professional has been included and defined as “a person who undertakes scientific study of the emotions, behaviours and biology relating to a person's mental well-being, their ability to function in everyday life and their concept of self. €œBehavioural health” is the preferred term to “mental health” and includes professionals such as counselors, analysts, psychologists, educators and support workers, who provide counseling, therapy, and mediation services to individuals, families, groups, and communities in response to social and personal difficulties.”[1]This is a welcome step to the extent that it creates a diverse category of trained workforce in the field of Mental Health (Behavioural Health Science Professionals) and tries to regulate their training although it mainly aims to promote mental wellbeing.

However there is a huge lacuna in the term of “Mental Illness” can i get ventolin over the counter uk as defined by MHCA, 2017. Only severe disorders are included as per definition and there is no clarity regarding inclusion of other psychiatric disorders, namely “common mental disorders” such as anxiety and depression. This leaves a strong possibility of concept of “psychiatric illnesses” being limited to only “severe psychiatric disorders” (major psychoses) thus perpetuating the stigma and alienation associated with can i get ventolin over the counter uk psychiatric patients for centuries.

Psychiatrists being restricted to treating severe mental disorders as per MHCA, 2017, there is a strong possibility that the care of common mental disorders may gradually pass on under the care of “behavioural health professionals” as per the new act!. There is need to look into can i get ventolin over the counter uk this aspect by the leadership in psychiatry, both organizational and academic psychiatry, and reduce the contradictions between the MHCA, 2017 and this nascent act. All disorders classified in ICD 10 and DSM 5 should be classified as “Psychiatric Disorders” or “Mental Illness.” This will not only help in fighting the stigma associated with psychiatric illnesses but also promote the integration of psychiatry with other specialties.

References 1.The can i get ventolin over the counter uk National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2021. The Gazette of India. Published by Ministry of Law and Justice can i get ventolin over the counter uk.

28 March, 2021. 2.The Mental can i get ventolin over the counter uk Healthcare Act, 2017. The Gazette of India.

Published by Ministry can i get ventolin over the counter uk of Law and Justice. April 7, 2017. Correspondence Address:Om Prakash can i get ventolin over the counter uk SinghAA 304, Ashabari Apartments, O/31, Baishnabghata, Patuli Township, Kolkata - 700 094, West Bengal IndiaSource of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_268_21Abstract Thiamine can i get ventolin over the counter uk is essential for the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism in humans.

Chronic alcohol use is associated with deficiency of thiamine along with other vitamins through several mechanisms. Several neuropsychiatric syndromes have been associated with thiamine deficiency in can i get ventolin over the counter uk the context of alcohol use disorder including Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, and possibly, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome. High-dose thiamine replacement is suggested for these neuropsychiatric syndromes.Keywords.

Alcohol use disorder, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome, thiamine, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeHow to cite this article:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS can i get ventolin over the counter uk. High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:121-6How to cite this URL:Praharaj can i get ventolin over the counter uk SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS.

High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J can i get ventolin over the counter uk Psychiatry [serial online] 2021 [cited 2021 May 5];63:121-6. Available from.

Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/2/121/313716 Introduction Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin (B1) that plays a key role in the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism. Thiamine pyrophosphate (or diphosphate) is the active form that acts as a cofactor for enzymes.

The daily dietary requirement of thiamine in adults is 1–2 mg and is dependent on carbohydrate intake.[1],[2] The requirement increases if basal metabolic rate is higher, for example, during alcohol withdrawal state. Dietary sources include pork (being the major source), meat, legume, vegetables, and enriched foods. The body can store between 30 and 50 mg of thiamine and is likely to get depleted within 4–6 weeks if the diet is deficient.[2] In those with alcohol-related liver damage, the ability to store thiamine is gradually reduced.[1],[2]Lower thiamine levels are found in 30%–80% of chronic alcohol users.[3] Thiamine deficiency occurs due to poor intake of vitamin-rich foods, impaired intestinal absorption, decreased storage capacity of liver, damage to the renal epithelial cells due to alcohol, leading to increased loss from the kidneys, and excessive loss associated with medical conditions.[2],[3] Furthermore, alcohol decreases the absorption of colonic bacterial thiamine, reduces the enzymatic activity of thiamine pyrophosphokinase, and thereby, reducing the amount of available thiamine pyrophosphate.[4] Since facilitated diffusion of thiamine into cells is dependent on a concentration gradient, reduced thiamine pyrophosphokinase activity further reduces thiamine uptake into cells.[4] Impaired utilization of thiamine is seen in certain conditions (e.g., hypomagnesemia) which are common in alcohol use disorder.[2],[3],[4] This narrative review discusses the neuropsychiatric syndromes associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder, and the treatment regimens advocated for these conditions.

A PubMed search supplemented with manual search was used to identify neuropsychiatric syndromes related to thiamine deficiency in alcohol use disorder patients. Neuropsychiatric Syndromes Associated With Thiamine Deficiency Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeWernicke encephalopathy is associated with chronic alcohol use, and if not identified and treated early, could lead to permanent brain damage characterized by an amnestic syndrome known as Korsakoff syndrome. Inappropriate treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy with lower doses of thiamine can lead to high mortality rates (~20%) and Korsakoff syndrome in ~ 80% of patients (ranges from 56% to 84%).[5],[6] The classic triad of Wernicke includes oculomotor abnormalities, cerebellar dysfunction, and confusion.

Wernicke lesions are found in 12.5% of brain samples of patients with alcohol dependence.[7] However, only 20%–30% of them had a clinical diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy antemortem. It has been found that many patients develop Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) following repeated subclinical episodes of thiamine deficiency.[7] In an autopsy report of 97 chronic alcohol users, only16% had all the three “classical signs,” 29% had two signs, 37% presented with one sign, and 19% had none.[8] Mental status changes are the most prevalent sign (seen in 82% of the cases), followed by eye signs (in 29%) and ataxia (23%).[8] WKS should be suspected in persons with a history of alcohol use and presenting with signs of ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, acute confusion, memory disturbance, unexplained hypotension, hypothermia, coma, or unconsciousness.[9] Operational criteria for the diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy have been proposed by Caine et al.[10] that requires two out of four features, i.e., (a) dietary deficiency (signs such as cheilitis, glossitis, and bleeding gums), (b) oculomotor abnormalities (nystagmus, opthalmoplegia, and diplopia), (c) cerebellar dysfunction (gait ataxia, nystagmus), and (d) either altered mental state (confusion) or mild memory impairment.As it is very difficult to clinically distinguish Wernicke encephalopathy from other associated conditions such as delirium tremens, hepatic encephalopathy, or head injury, it is prudent to have a lower threshold to diagnose this if any of the clinical signs is seen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan during Wernicke encephalopathy shows mammillary body atrophy and enlarged third ventricle, lesions in the medial portions of thalami and mid brain and can be used to aid diagnosis.[11],[12] However, most clinical situations warrant treatment without waiting for neuroimaging report.

The treatment suggestions in the guidelines vary widely. Furthermore, hardly any evidence-based recommendations exist on a more general use of thiamine as a preventative intervention in individuals with alcohol use disorder.[13] There are very few studies that have evaluated the dose and duration of thiamine for WKS, but higher doses may result in a greater response.[6],[14] With thiamine administration rapid improvement is seen in eye movement abnormalities (improve within days or weeks) and ataxia (may take months to recover), but the effects on memory, in particular, are unclear.[4],[14] Severe memory impairment is the core feature of Korsakoff syndrome. Initial stages of the disease can present with confabulation, executive dysfunction, flattened affect, apathy, and poor insight.[15] Both the episodic and semantic memory are affected, whereas, procedural memory remains intact.[15]Thomson et al.[6] suggested the following should be treated with thiamine as they are at high risk for developing WKS.

(1) all patients with any evidence of chronic alcohol misuse and any of the following. Acute confusion, decreased conscious level, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, memory disturbance, and hypothermia with hypotension. (2) patients with delirium tremens may often also have Wernicke encephalopathy, therefore, all of these patients should be presumed to have Wernicke encephalopathy and treated, preferably as inpatients.

And (3) all hypoglycemic patients (who are treated with intravenous glucose) with evidence of chronic alcohol ingestion must be given intravenous thiamine immediately because of the risk of acutely precipitating Wernicke encephalopathy.Alcoholic cerebellar syndromeChronic alcohol use is associated with the degeneration of anterior superior vermis, leading to a clinical syndrome characterized by the subacute or chronic onset of gait ataxia and incoordination in legs, with relative sparing of upper limbs, speech, and oculomotor movements.[16] In severe cases, truncal ataxia, mild dysarthria, and incoordination of the upper limb is also found along with gait ataxia. Thiamine deficiency is considered to be the etiological factor,[17],[18] although direct toxic effects of alcohol may also contribute to this syndrome. One-third of patients with chronic use of alcohol have evidence of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration.

However, population-based studies estimate prevalence to be 14.6%.[19] The effect of alcohol on the cerebellum is graded with the most severe deficits occurring in alcohol users with the longest duration and highest severity of use. The diagnosis of cerebellar degeneration is largely clinical. MRI can be used to evaluate for vermian atrophy but is unnecessary.[20] Anterior portions of vermis are affected early, with involvement of posterior vermis and adjacent lateral hemispheres occurring late in the course could be used to differentiate alcoholic cerebellar degeneration from other conditions that cause more diffuse involvement.[21] The severity of cerebellar syndrome is more in the presence of WKS, thus could be related to thiamine deficiency.[22],[23] Therefore, this has been considered as a cerebellar presentation of WKS and should be treated in a similar way.[16] There are anecdotal evidence to suggest improvement in cerebellar syndrome with high-dose thiamine.[24]Alcoholic peripheral neuropathyPeripheral neuropathy is common in alcohol use disorder and is seen in 44% of the users.[25] It has been associated predominantly with thiamine deficiency.

However, deficiency of other B vitamins (pyridoxine and cobalamin) and direct toxic effect of alcohol is also implicated.[26] Clinically, onset of symptoms is gradual with the involvement of both sensory and motor fibers and occasionally autonomic fibers. Neuropathy can affect both small and large peripheral nerve fibers, leading to different clinical manifestations. Thiamine deficiency-related neuropathy affects larger fiber types, which results in motor deficits and sensory ataxia.

On examination, large fiber involvement is manifested by distal limb muscle weakness and loss of proprioception and vibratory sensation. Together, these can contribute to the gait unsteadiness seen in chronic alcohol users by creating a superimposed steppage gait and reduced proprioceptive input back to the movement control loops in the central nervous system. The most common presentations include painful sensations in both lower limbs, sometimes with burning sensation or numbness, which are early symptoms.

Typically, there is a loss of vibration sensation in distal lower limbs. Later symptoms include loss of proprioception, gait disturbance, and loss of reflexes. Most advanced findings include weakness and muscle atrophy.[20] Progression is very gradual over months and involvement of upper limbs may occur late in the course.

Diagnosis begins with laboratory evaluation to exclude other causes of distal, sensorimotor neuropathy including hemoglobin A1c, liver function tests, and complete blood count to evaluate for red blood cell macrocytosis. Cerebrospinal fluid studies may show increased protein levels but should otherwise be normal in cases of alcohol neuropathy and are not recommended in routine evaluation. Electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to distinguish whether the neuropathy is axonal or demyelinating and whether it is motor, sensory, or mixed type.

Alcoholic neuropathy shows reduced distal, sensory amplitudes, and to a lesser extent, reduced motor amplitudes on nerve conduction studies.[20] Abstinence and vitamin supplementation including thiamine are the treatments advocated for this condition.[25] In mild-to-moderate cases, near-complete improvement can be achieved.[20] Randomized controlled trials have showed a significant improvement in alcoholic polyneuropathy with thiamine treatment.[27],[28]Marchiafava–Bignami syndromeThis is a rare but fatal condition seen in chronic alcohol users that is characterized by progressive demyelination and necrosis of the corpus callosum. The association of this syndrome with thiamine deficiency is not very clear, and direct toxic effects of alcohol are also suggested.[29] The clinical syndrome is variable and presentation can be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute forms, it is predominantly characterized by the altered mental state such as delirium, stupor, or coma.[30] Other clinical features in neuroimaging confirmed Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome (MBS) cases include impaired gait, dysarthria, mutism, signs of split-brain syndrome, pyramidal tract signs, primitive reflexes, rigidity, incontinence, gaze palsy, diplopia, and sensory symptoms.[30] Neuropsychiatric manifestations are common and include psychotic symptoms, depression, apathy, aggressive behavior, and sometimes dementia.[29] MRI scan shows lesions of the corpus callosum, particularly splenium.

Treatment for this condition is mostly supportive and use of nutritional supplements and steroids. However, there are several reports of improvement of this syndrome with thiamine at variable doses including reports of beneficial effects with high-dose strategy.[29],[30],[31] Early initiation of thiamine, preferably within 2 weeks of the onset of symptoms is associated with a better outcome. Therefore, high-dose thiamine should be administered to all suspected cases of MBS.

Laboratory Diagnosis of Thiamine Deficiency Estimation of thiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate levels may confirm the diagnosis of deficiency. Levels of thiamine in the blood are not reliable indicators of thiamine status. Low erythrocyte transketolase activity is also helpful.[32],[33] Transketolase concentrations of <120 nmol/L have also been used to indicate deficiency, while concentrations of 120–150 nmol/L suggest marginal thiamine status.[1] However, these tests are not routinely performed as it is time consuming, expensive, and may not be readily available.[34] The ETKA assay is a functional test rather than a direct measurement of thiamin status and therefore may be influenced by factors other than thiamine deficiency such as diabetes mellitus and polyneuritis.[1] Hence, treatment should be initiated in the absence of laboratory confirmation of thiamine deficiency.

Furthermore, treatment should not be delayed if tests are ordered, but the results are awaited. Electroencephalographic abnormalities in thiamine deficiency states range from diffuse mild-to-moderate slow waves and are not a good diagnostic option, as the prevalence of abnormalities among patients is inconsistent.[35]Surrogate markers, which reflect chronic alcohol use and nutritional deficiency other than thiamine, may be helpful in identifying at-risk patients. This includes gamma glutamate transferase, aspartate aminotransferase.

Alanine transaminase ratio >2:1, and increased mean corpuscular volume.[36] They are useful when a reliable history of alcohol use is not readily available, specifically in emergency departments when treatment needs to be started immediately to avoid long-term consequences. Thiamine Replacement Therapy Oral versus parenteral thiamineIntestinal absorption of thiamine depends on active transport through thiamine transporter 1 and 2, which follow saturation kinetics.[1] Therefore, the rate and amount of absorption of thiamine in healthy individuals is limited. In healthy volunteers, a 10 mg dose results in maximal absorption of thiamine, and any doses higher than this do not increase thiamine levels.

Therefore, the maximum amount of thiamine absorbed from 10 mg or higher dose is between 4.3 and 5.6 mg.[37] However, it has been suggested that, although thiamine transport occurs through the energy-requiring, sodium-dependent active process at physiologic concentrations, at higher supraphysiologic concentrations thiamine uptake is mostly a passive process.[38] Smithline et al. Have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve higher serum thiamine levels with oral doses up to 1500 mg.[39]In chronic alcohol users, intestinal absorption is impaired. Hence, absorption rates are expected to be much lower.

It is approximately 30% of that seen in healthy individuals, i.e., 1.5 mg of thiamine is absorbed from 10 mg oral thiamine.[3] In those consuming alcohol and have poor nutrition, not more than 0.8 mg of thiamine is absorbed.[2],[3],[6] The daily thiamine requirement is 1–1.6 mg/day, which may be more in alcohol-dependent patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[1] It is highly likely that oral supplementation with thiamine will be inadequate in alcohol-dependent individuals who continue to drink. Therefore, parenteral thiamine is preferred for supplementation in deficiency states associated with chronic alcohol use. Therapy involving parenteral thiamine is considered safe except for occasional circumstances of allergic reactions involving pruritus and local irritation.There is a small, but definite risk of anaphylaxis with parenteral thiamine, specifically with intravenous administration (1/250,000 intravenous injections).[40] Diluting thiamine in 50–100 mg normal saline for infusion may reduce the risk.

However, parenteral thiamine should always be administered under observation with the necessary facilities for resuscitation.A further important issue involves the timing of administration of thiamine relative to the course of alcohol abuse or dependence. Administration of thiamine treatment to patients experiencing alcohol withdrawal may also be influenced by other factors such as magnesium depletion, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor upregulation, or liver impairment, all of which may alter thiamine metabolism and utilization.[6],[14]Thiamine or other preparations (e.g., benfotiamine)The thiamine transporters limit the rate of absorption of orally administered thiamine. Allithiamines (e.g., benfotiamine) are the lipid-soluble thiamine derivatives that are absorbed better, result in higher thiamine levels, and are retained longer in the body.[41] The thiamine levels with orally administered benfotiamine are much higher than oral thiamine and almost equals to intravenous thiamine given at the same dosage.[42]Benfotiamine has other beneficial effects including inhibition of production of advanced glycation end products, thus protecting against diabetic vascular complications.[41] It also modulates nuclear transcription factor κB (NK-κB), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, glycogen synthase kinase 3 β, etc., that play a role in cell repair and survival.[41] Benfotiamine has been found to be effective for the treatment of alcoholic peripheral neuropathy.[27]Dosing of thiamineAs the prevalence of thiamine deficiency is very common in chronic alcohol users, the requirement of thiamine increases in active drinkers and it is difficult to rapidly determine thiamine levels using laboratory tests, it is prudent that all patients irrespective of nutritional status should be administered parenteral thiamine.

The dose should be 100 mg thiamine daily for 3–5 days during inpatient treatment. Commonly, multivitamin injections are added to intravenous infusions. Patients at risk for thiamine deficiency should receive 250 mg of thiamine daily intramuscularly for 3–5 days, followed by oral thiamine 100 mg daily.[6]Thiamine plasma levels reduce to 20% of peak value after approximately 2 h of parenteral administration, thus reducing the effective “window period” for passive diffusion to the central nervous system.[6] Therefore, in thiamine deficient individuals with features of Wernicke encephalopathy should receive thiamine thrice daily.High-dose parenteral thiamine administered thrice daily has been advocated in patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[43] The Royal College of Physicians guideline recommends that patients with suspected Wernicke encephalopathy should receive 500 mg thiamine diluted in 50–100 ml of normal saline infusion over 30 min three times daily for 2–3 days and sometimes for longer periods.[13] If there are persistent symptoms such as confusion, cerebellar symptoms, or memory impairment, this regimen can be continued until the symptoms improve.

If symptoms improve, oral thiamine 100 mg thrice daily can be continued for prolonged periods.[6],[40] A similar treatment regimen is advocated for alcoholic cerebellar degeneration as well. Doses more than 500 mg intramuscular or intravenous three times a day for 3–5 days, followed by 250 mg once daily for a further 3–5 days is also recommended by some guidelines (e.g., British Association for Psychopharmacology).[44]Other effects of thiamineThere are some data to suggest that thiamine deficiency can modulate alcohol consumption and may result in pathological drinking. Benfotiamine 600 mg/day as compared to placebo for 6 months was well tolerated and found to decrease psychiatric distress in males and reduce alcohol consumption in females with severe alcohol dependence.[45],[46] Other Factors During Thiamine Therapy Correction of hypomagnesemiaMagnesium is a cofactor for many thiamine-dependent enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism.

Patients may fail to respond to thiamine supplementation in the presence of hypomagnesemia.[47] Magnesium deficiency is common in chronic alcohol users and is seen in 30% of individuals.[48],[49] It can occur because of increased renal excretion of magnesium, poor intake, decreased absorption because of Vitamin D deficiency, the formation of undissociated magnesium soaps with free fatty acids.[48],[49]The usual adult dose is 35–50 mmol of magnesium sulfate added to 1 L isotonic (saline) given over 12–24 h.[6] The dose has to be titrated against plasma magnesium levels. It is recommended to reduce the dose in renal failure. Contraindications include patients with documented hypersensitivity and those with heart block, Addison's disease, myocardial damage, severe hepatitis, or hypophosphatemia.

Do not administer intravenous magnesium unless hypomagnesemia is confirmed.[6]Other B-complex vitaminsMost patients with deficiency of thiamine will also have reduced levels of other B vitamins including niacin, pyridoxine, and cobalamin that require replenishment. For patients admitted to the intensive care unit with symptoms that may mimic or mask Wernicke encephalopathy, based on the published literature, routine supplementation during the 1st day of admission includes 200–500 mg intravenous thiamine every 8 h, 64 mg/kg magnesium sulfate (≈4–5 g for most adult patients), and 400–1000 μg intravenous folate.[50] If alcoholic ketoacidosis is suspected, dextrose-containing fluids are recommended over normal saline.[50] Precautions to be Taken When Administering Parenteral Thiamine It is recommended to monitor for anaphylaxis and has appropriate facilities for resuscitation and for treating anaphylaxis readily available including adrenaline and corticosteroids. Anaphylaxis has been reported at the rate of approximately 4/1 million pairs of ampoules of Pabrinex (a pair of high potency vitamins available in the UK containing 500 mg of thiamine (1:250,000 I/V administrations).[40] Intramuscular thiamine is reported to have a lower incidence of anaphylactic reactions than intravenous administration.[40] The reaction has been attributed to nonspecific histamine release.[51] Administer intravenous thiamine slowly, preferably by slow infusion in 100 ml normal saline over 15–30 min.

Conclusions Risk factors for thiamine deficiency should be assessed in chronic alcohol users. A high index of suspicion and a lower threshold to diagnose thiamine deficiency states including Wernicke encephalopathy is needed. Several other presentations such as cerebellar syndrome, MBS, polyneuropathy, and delirium tremens could be related to thiamine deficiency and should be treated with protocols similar to Wernicke encephalopathy.

High-dose thiamine is recommended for the treatment of suspected Wernicke encephalopathy and related conditions [Figure 1]. However, evidence in terms of randomized controlled trials is lacking, and the recommendations are based on small studies and anecdotal reports. Nevertheless, as all these conditions respond to thiamine supplementation, it is possible that these have overlapping pathophysiology and are better considered as Wernicke encephalopathy spectrum disorders.Figure 1.

Thiamine recommendations for patients with alcohol use disorder. AHistory of alcohol use, but no clinical features of WE. BNo clinical features of WE, but with risk factors such as complicated withdrawal (delirium, seizures).

CClinical features of WE (ataxia, opthalmoplegia, global confusion)Click here to viewFinancial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.Frank LL. Thiamin in clinical practice.

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Neuropsychol Rev 2012;22:170-80. 13.Pruckner N, Baumgartner J, Hinterbuchinger B, Glahn A, Vyssoki S, Vyssoki B. Thiamine substitution in alcohol use disorder.

A narrative review of medical guidelines. Eur Addict Res 2019;25:103-10. 14.Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S.

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20.Hammoud N, Jimenez-Shahed J. Chronic neurologic effects of alcohol. Clin Liver Dis 2019;23:141-55.

21.Lee JH, Heo SH, Chang DI. Early-stage alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. Diagnostic imaging clues.

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Drug Alcohol Rev 1990;9:53-60. 23.Baker KG, Harding AJ, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke's encephalopathy.

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A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol 2018;22:1-3. 26.Chopra K, Tiwari V.

Alcoholic neuropathy. Possible mechanisms and future treatment possibilities. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012;73:348-62.

27.Woelk H, Lehrl S, Bitsch R, Köpcke W. Benfotiamine in treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy. An 8-week randomized controlled study (BAP I Study).

Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:631-8. 28.Peters TJ, Kotowicz J, Nyka W, Kozubski W, Kuznetsov V, Vanderbist F, et al. Treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy with vitamin B complex.

A randomised controlled trial. Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:636-42. 29.Fernandes LM, Bezerra FR, Monteiro MC, Silva ML, de Oliveira FR, Lima RR, et al.

Thiamine deficiency, oxidative metabolic pathways and ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. How poor nutrition contributes to the alcoholic syndrome, as Marchiafava-Bignami disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017;71:580-6.

30.Hillbom M, Saloheimo P, Fujioka S, Wszolek ZK, Juvela S, Leone MA. Diagnosis and management of Marchiafava-Bignami disease. A review of CT/MRI confirmed cases.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014;85:168-73. 31.Nemlekar SS, Mehta RY, Dave KR, Shah ND. Marchiafava.

Bignami disease treated with parenteral thiamine. Indian J Psychol Med 2016;38:147-9. [Full text] 32.Brin M.

Erythrocyte transketolase in early thiamine deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1962;98:528-41. 33.Dreyfus PM.

Clinical application of blood transketolase determinations. N Engl J Med 1962;267:596-8. 34.Edwards KA, Tu-Maung N, Cheng K, Wang B, Baeumner AJ, Kraft CE.

Thiamine assays – Advances, challenges, and caveats. ChemistryOpen 2017;6:178-91. 35.Chandrakumar A, Bhardwaj A, 't Jong GW.

Review of thiamine deficiency disorders. Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2018;30:153-62.

36.Torruellas C, French SW, Medici V. Diagnosis of alcoholic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:11684-99.

37.Thomson AD, Leevy CM. Observations on the mechanism of thiamine hydrochloride absorption in man. Clin Sci 1972;43:153-63.

38.Hoyumpa AM Jr., Strickland R, Sheehan JJ, Yarborough G, Nichols S. Dual system of intestinal thiamine transport in humans. J Lab Clin Med 1982;99:701-8.

39.Smithline HA, Donnino M, Greenblatt DJ. Pharmacokinetics of high-dose oral thiamine hydrochloride in healthy subjects. BMC Clin Pharmacol 2012;12:4.

40.Latt N, Dore G. Thiamine in the treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy in patients with alcohol use disorders. Intern Med J 2014;44:911-5.

41.Raj V, Ojha S, Howarth FC, Belur PD, Subramanya SB. Therapeutic potential of benfotiamine and its molecular targets. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2018;22:3261-73.

42.Xie F, Cheng Z, Li S, Liu X, Guo X, Yu P, et al. Pharmacokinetic study of benfotiamine and the bioavailability assessment compared to thiamine hydrochloride. J Clin Pharmacol 2014;54:688-95.

43.Cook CC, Hallwood PM, Thomson AD. B Vitamin deficiency and neuropsychiatric syndromes in alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:317-36.

44.Lingford-Hughes AR, Welch S, Peters L, Nutt DJ, British Association for Psychopharmacology, Expert Reviewers Group. BAP updated guidelines. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity.

Recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:899-952. 45.Manzardo AM, He J, Poje A, Penick EC, Campbell J, Butler MG.

Double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of benfotiamine for severe alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;133:562-70. 46.Manzardo AM, Pendleton T, Poje A, Penick EC, Butler MG.

Change in psychiatric symptomatology after benfotiamine treatment in males is related to lifetime alcoholism severity. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;152:257-63. 47.Dingwall KM, Delima JF, Gent D, Batey RG.

Hypomagnesaemia and its potential impact on thiamine utilisation in patients with alcohol misuse at the Alice Springs Hospital. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:323-8. 48.Flink EB.

Magnesium deficiency in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1986;10:590-4. 49.Grochowski C, Blicharska E, Baj J, Mierzwińska A, Brzozowska K, Forma A, et al.

Serum iron, magnesium, copper, and manganese levels in alcoholism. A systematic review. Molecules 2019;24:E1361.

50.Flannery AH, Adkins DA, Cook AM. Unpeeling the evidence for the banana bag. Evidence-based recommendations for the management of alcohol-associated vitamin and electrolyte deficiencies in the ICU.

Crit Care Med 2016;44:1545-52. 51.Lagunoff D, Martin TW, Read G. Agents that release histamine from mast cells.

Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1983;23:331-51. Correspondence Address:Samir Kumar PraharajDepartment of Psychiatry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest.

NoneDOI. 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_440_20 Figures [Figure 1].

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11.7

72x0

35.8

35.8

35.8

30.9

72x18

34.0

34.0

72x23

*32,5

27.8

72x28

30.8

30.8

72x33

28.6

72x38

26.1

26.1

22.3

72x43

23.3

72x48

20.1

20.1

17.2

72x53

16.6

16.6

72x58

12.7

10.9

77x0

41.0

41.0

35.4

77x23

37.7

77x28

*35,9

77x33

33.8

77x38

31.4

31.4

77x43

28.5

77x48

25.3

77x53

21.8

21.8

77x58

17.9

15.3

77x63

*13.7

82x0

46.4

46.4

46.4

40.1

82x28

41.5

41.5

41.5

82x33

*39,4

82x38

36.9

31.5

82x43

34.1

34.1

82x48

30.9

26.4

82x53

27.4

82x58

23.5

23.5

20.1

82x63

19.3

82x68

14.7

12.5

87x0

52.3

52.3

45.2

87x28

47.4

*47,4

87x33

*45,3

87x38

*42,8

36.6

87x43

*40,0

87x48

36.8

87x53

33.3

87x58

29.4

29.4

25.1

87x63

25.2

87x68

20.6

87x73

15.7

92x0

58.5

58.5

58.5

50.5

92x28

53.7

92x33

*51,5

*51,5

92x38

49.0

92x43

*46.2

92x48

43.1

43.1

36.8

92x53

*39.5

92x58

35.6

30.4

92x63

31.4

92x68

26.8

26.8

22.9

92x73

21.9

92x78

16.6

97x0

65.8

65.8

56.2

97x38

55.6

97x43

*52,8

97x48

49.6

97x53

*46,1

97x58

*42,3

97x63

38.0

97x68

33.4

33.4

97x73

28.5

97x78

23.2

97x83

*17.6

102x0

72.7

72.7

72.7

62.1

102x38

62.6

102x48

56.6

56.6

48.4

102x58

49.2

49.2

42.0

102x68

40.4

34.5

102x73

35.0

102x78

30.2

25.8

102x83

*24.6

102x88

18.6

107x58

56.7

107x63

52.2

52.2

107x73

*42.8

107x78

37.5

107x83

31.9

107x88

25.9

112x0

87.7

87.7

87.7

74.9

112x38

77.6

112x48

71.5

71.5

61.1

112x58

64.1

54.8

112x63

60.0

112x68

55.3

47.3

112x78

45.1

45.1

112x88

33.6

28.7

112x93

27.2

117x63

67.9

117x73

58.4

58.4

117x83

47.5

117x93

*35.2

117x98

28.6

122x0

104.0

104.0

104.0

88.9

122x68

71.7

71.7

61.2

122x78

61.5

122x88

49.2

42.6

122x98

36.9

31.5

122x103

*29,9

127x63

85.0

85.0

85.0

127x73

75.5

127x83

64.6

127x93

52.3

127x103

38.6

127x108

31.2

132x0

121.8

121.8

122.0

104.0

132x68

89.1

132x78

79.2

67.7

132x88

67.6

132x98

53.9

132x108

40.2

135x0

108.7

137x73

93.9

137x93

*70,7

137x103

57.0

142x0

140.9

140.9

141.5

120.4

142x58

117.4

142x78

98.4

98.4

142x88

74.1

142x98

73.0

142x108

58.7

142x118

43.6

147x103

76.9

147x123

45.3

152x0

161.5

161.5

162.0

137.9

152x88

107.3

152x98

94.3

94.3

80.6

152x108

79.9

152x118

64.1

64.1

152x128

47.0

162x0

183.4

183.4

183.5

156.7

162x98

116.3

116.3

116.3

162x118

86.1

73.5

162x128

68.9

162x138

50.3

50.3

172x0

207.0

207.0

172x108

125.2

*107,0

172x128

92.2

172x138

73.6

172x148

53.7

53.7

182x0

232.0

232.0

EXT 197.8

182x118

134.1

182x128

117.5

*99,9

182x138

98.4

182x148

78.4

182x158

57.0

57.0

192x0

258.0

258.0

EXT 220.1

192x128

143.1

192x148

104.5

*89,3

192x168

60.4

202x0

285.0

285.0

202x98

218.0

218.0

218.0

202x138

152.0

152.0

202x148

*112,8

202x158

110.7

202x178

63.7

205x82

*246,8

212x138

180.4

212x148

161.0

212x158

*119,2

212x168

116.8

212x178

92.6

212x188

66.0

222x0

344.0

344.0

222x98

277.2

277.2

222x148

191.3

222x168

147.1

*125,7

222x178

123.0

222x188

97.4

232x158

201.6

201.6

232x178

154.7

*132,1

232x188

129.1

232x198

102.1

242x168

212.0

212.0

242x188

162.2

*138,6

242x198

135.3

242x208

106.9

252x0

444.0

444.0

252x178

222.3

*189,9

252x198

169.8

252x208

141.4

252x218

111.6

262x198

*175,7

262x218

147.6

262x228

116.4

272x168

319.7

319.7

272x228

153.7

272x238

121.1

276x0

*532,5

282x218

*191,0

282x238

159.9

282x248

125.9

292x188

348.8

292x248

166.0

302x148

484.4

302x198

363.3

363.3

*310,4

302x258

172.1

322x238

*280,8

332x248

*290,9

332x273

249.4

352x148

713.0

362x293

315.8

*269,8

392x343

251.6

402x148

976.5

402x348

*241,8

Firkant stænger
Standard dimensioner og legeringer
Standardlængder: 500, 1000, 2000 mm

A x B mm

JM 1-15 Rødgods

JM 3-15
Tin-bronze

JM 7-15/20 Aluminiumbronze

30x30

*6,8

32x32

9,1

9,1

40x40

*12,0

42x42

15,7

15,7

45x45

*15,2

52x12

5,6

5,6

52x14

6,5

6,5

52x18

8,3

8,3

52x22

10,2

10,2

52x52

24,1

24,1

55x55

*22,7

60x60

*27,4

67x12

7,2

7,2

67x14

8,3

8,3

67x18

10,7

10,7

67x22

13,1

13,1

67x32

19,1

19,1

16,3

70x70

*43,6

80x42

25,8

80x51

31.3

82x12

8,8

8,8

82x14

10,2

10,2

82x18

13,1

13,1

82x22

16,1

16,1

102x12

10,9

10,9

102x14

12,7

12,7

102x18

16,3

16,3

102x22

20,2

20,2

102x52

47

103x30

*23,5

105x55

44.2

122x18

19,5

19,5

122x22

23,9

23,9

130x63

62.6

130x65

74,7

142x18

22,7

22,7

142x22

27,8

27,8

150x70

*79,8

150x90

102,6

162x18

26

26

162x22

31,7

31,7

162x72

103

182x18

29,2

29,2

182x22

35,6

35,6

185x90

*126,5

202x18

32,4

32,4

202x22

39,6

39,6

202x30

*46,1

Sekskant stænger
Standard dimensioner og legeringer
Standardlængder: 500, 1000, 2000, 3000 mm. Sekskantstænger m/ hul fremstilles på bestilling

NV mm

JM 1-15 Rødgods

17

2,2

18

2,5

22

3,7

24

4,4

26

5,2

28

6

32

7,9

36

10

44

14,9

50

19,3